For many years prior to the reign of Abdur Rahman, trade with Afghanistan itself or in transit to regions beyond the frontiers had to contend against two difficulties, the one arising from the heavy imposts upon goods intended for local consumption, and the other from the excessive charges levied upon merchandise destined for markets beyond the Oxus. Under the Khans commerce struggled ineffectually against exactions which, if comprehensible during a period when the country was parcelled out among a number of reigning families, were directly inimical to its better interests so soon as the several territories became incorporated within one central administration. At this juncture the trade of Afghanistan followed these routes, none of which were practicable for wheeled traffic: (1) From Persia, _viâ_ Teheran and Meshed to Herat. (2) From Khiva, _viâ_ Bokhara, Merv and the Murghab valley to Herat. (3) From Bokhara, _viâ_ Karshi, Balkh and Khulm to Kabul. (4) From Chinese Turkestan, _viâ_ Chitral to Jelalabad. (5) From India, _viâ_ the Khyber and the Ghwalari passes, to Kabul and the Oxus. (6) From India, _viâ_ the Bolan and the Gomul passes, for Kandahar and Herat. In connection with these routes the following duties were levied at the different points upon passing caravans. From India, _viâ_ the Khyber and Ghwalari passes, for Kabul, in addition to a 2½ per cent. _ad valorem_: At Peshawar: 1 rupee per horse or camel. At Jelalabad: 2 rupees per horse or camel. At Butkhak: no duty was levied at this point, but a customs officer inspected the goods and sent a detailed list of them to Kabul. At Kabul: 2 rupees 8 annas per horse or camel, or 1/40 _ad valorem_, on entering Kabul and 13 or 14 annas per 100 rupees’ worth on leaving, by which payment through caravans were exempted from further duties until beyond Bamian. Between the Kabul and Balkh territories local caravans, carrying goods within the boundaries of either khanate, had, in their passage of the Hindu Kush, _viâ_ the Kushan pass, to pay: One pony-load (3 maunds) of indigo, silk or asbury, 1 rupee 2 shahis. One camel-load (5 maunds) of indigo, silk or asbury, 2 rupees 1½ shahis. One ass-load of indigo, silk or asbury, 7 shahis. One camel-load of salt, 7 shahis. One camel-load of almonds, 1 rupee 2 shahis. One camel-load of pistacia nuts, 1½ rupees. Horses and mares, 5½ rupees for Bamian and beyond Kushan; 1 rupee 2 shahis for Kushan. Foot passengers, 1 rupee. Beyond Bamian caravans destined for the Oxus had to meet charges: At Rui, of 4 annas per load, camel or horse. At Kamard, of 4 annas per load, camel or horse. At Balkh, of 2 rupees per load, camel or horse. Merchandise from Eastern Turkestan paid at Jelalabad, in addition to 2½ per cent. _ad valorem_, as follows: