n-l becomes nd, n, l, or nil n-f ” f n-m ” m n-n ” n n-s ” s n-u ” u n-ng ” ng’ n-j ” ny n-k ” ng n-t ” nd n-w ” mbw, &c., &c. In African spelling, some advocate the disbanding of _j_ and _ch_ in favour of _tsh_ and _dzh_, but the changes of _ch_ and _j_ after the letter _n_ afford an argument against writing these letters _tsh_ and _dzh_ in the Yao language. Thus, for kunchondelela (kuntshondelela) we hear kunjondelela (kundzhondelela), and not kundshondelela. But such questions turn greatly on expediency. _Words._—An English word like _loved_, is found to consist of two elements, a simpler word _love_, and the ending _d_. If the simpler word _love_ be not traced farther back it is called a root. The other element _d_ indicates the modification of the root. In order to give an account of such a word we have to explain (1) the root, (2) the modification of it. The modification of it by the addition of _d_ is well explained when we have found that _d_ is for _did_. But how do roots arise? A great many are imitations of sounds in nature, others may be utterances which were at first accidentally associated with certain objects. Yao words we may explain in the following manner. In the case of kulemba (to write, mark), we may suppose that the root _lemb_ or rather _lembe_ expresses the sound made by some scratching instrument. Hence we have _lemba_ the shortest form of the verb. From this verbal root we may form ten nouns which express different meanings and fall into ten classes. Strangely enough these classes correspond to a great extent with the classifications of the noun stated in some English grammars (see Bain’s Grammar). They may be exemplified as follows:— 1 { Mlemba, a writer } (personal) { Ju-akulemba, one that writes } 2 Ulembe, writing, marking (abstract) 3 Ndembile (nembo), a writing 4 Chilembo, a great mark (ampliative) 5 Lilembo, a mark } names of natural objects 6 Lulembo, a mark } 7 Kalembo, a little mark (diminutive) 8 Kulemba, writing (verbal noun or infinitive) 9 Pakulembila, a place-for-writing-at, desk 10 Mukulembila, a-place-for-writing in, office These ten classes of nouns may be formed in connection with every verb. The 2nd class, besides embracing abstract nouns includes the names of all trees that begin with _m_; while the third class embraces the names of birds and animals, especially such as appear in flocks; as deer, sheep; and the words in this class have now no plural though there is some evidence that they had a plural formerly.