Another matter in which the eighteenth century witnessed great reform was the _treatment of the insane_, which continued in very bad condition until toward the close of the century, when a movement for improvement began. From and after this lunatics were liberated from their fetters and from the hands of brutal keepers, and regarded as actually ill, while so-called schools of psychiatry were founded. While the first impulse in this direction was given by Lorry, the true reformer was Pinel, already mentioned, who did away with corporeal punishment and abuse, separated the insane from convicts, limited the employment of drugs and especially venesection, placed the unfortunates in special institutions under the charge of physicians, and classified patients according to their symptoms. Yet, in spite of his humane teachings, lunatics were found incarcerated in cages in some of the French cities as late as 1834. Pinel was followed by Esquirol (1772-1840), who in 1818 established the first clinic for mental diseases. It is well known what a conspicuous part _public baths_ played in the social life of the ancient Greeks and Romans, but{229} the first public resort for sea-bathing was established in Germany in 1794. The cold-water epoch of this century, however, began with the researches of Hahn (16961773), a Silesian, who introduced a systematic and almost exclusive hydrotherapeutic method. The modern method of using cold water as an antipyretic agent was first employed in England, in 1797, by Currie, who originally was an American merchant. In France the method found little sympathy, but it made its way even to Spain later, where it was adopted by the famous Sangrado, who is well known to readers of _Gil Blas_. CHAPTER IX. _The Age of Renovation (continued).--The Eighteenth Century; General Considerations. Foundation of Learned Societies, etc. The Royal College of Surgeons, 1800; the Josephinum, 1785.--The Nineteenth Century. Realistic Reaction Against Previous Idealism. Influence of Comte, of Claude Bernard, and of Charles Darwin, 1809-1882. Influence Exerted by Other Sciences.--Theory of Excitement: Roeschlaub.--Stimolo and Contrast imolo: Rasori, 1762-1837.--Homoeopathy: Hahnemann, 1753-1843.--Isop-athy, Electrohomoeopathy of Mattei.--Cranioscopy, or Phrenology: Gall and Spurzheim.--The Physiological Theory: Broussais, 1772-1838.--Paris Pathological School: Cruveilhier, 1791-1873. Andral, 1797-1876. Louis, 17871872. Magendie, 1783-1855. Trousseau, 1801-1866. Claude Bernard, 1813-1878.--British Medicine: Bell and Hall, Travers, 1783-1858.--Germany, School of Natural Philosophy: Johannes Müller, 1801-1858.--School of Natural History: Schônlein, 1763-1874.--New Vienna School: Rokitansky, 1804-1878. Skoda, 1805-1881._