was indeed only the custom of the community; but violation of the custom was from the beginning regarded as a religious offence and was punished on supernatural grounds. The view that morality and religion are essentially distinct, that morality not only can stand alone, without support from religion, but has in reality always stood without such support--however much {224} the fact has been obscured by religious prepossessions--this view receives striking confirmation from the current and generally accepted theory of the origin and nature of justice. That theory traces the origin of justice back to the feeling of resentment experienced by the individual against the particular cause of his pain (Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, I, 22). Resentment leads to retaliation and takes the form of revenge. Vengeance, at first executed by the person injured (or by his kin, if he be killed), comes eventually, if slowly, to be taken out of the hands of the person injured or his avengers, and to be exercised by the State in the interests of the community and in furtherance, not of revenge, but of justice and the good of society. Thus not only the origin of justice, but the whole course of its growth and development, is entirely independent of religion and religious considerations. Throughout, the individual and society are the only parties involved; the gods do not appear--or, if they do appear, they are intrusive and superfluous. If this be the true view of the history and nature of justice, it may--and probably must--be the truth about the whole of morality and not only about justice. We have but {225} to follow Dr. Westermarck (_ib._, p. 21) in grouping the moral emotions under the two heads of emotions of approval and emotions of disapproval, we have but to note with him that both groups belong to the class of retributive emotions, and we see that the origin and history of justice are typical of the origin and history of morals: morality in general, just as much as justice in particular, both originates independently of religion and developes--where moral progress is made--independently of religion.