A few important works were completed, particularly in Spain, but nothing indicative of general relief from the depths of ignorance and sanitary demoralization to which the greater portion of the civilized world had sunk at that time. The city of Paris took all its water from the Seine, except that which was supplied by a small aqueduct built in 1183. So small was the supply, aside from the water obtained from the river, that in 1550 it is estimated that the former amounted to about one quart only per head of population per day. The situation in London was equally bad, for it was only in the first half of the thirteenth century that spring-water was brought to the city by means of lead pipes and masonry conduits. Public water-works began to be constructed in Germany on a small scale in the early part of the fifteenth century. Obviously no pumps were available in those early days of water-supply, so that the small systems which have been mentioned were of the gravity class; that is, the water flowed naturally in open or closed channels from its sources to the points of consumption. Pumps of a simple and crude type first began to be used at a point on the old London Bridge in 1582, and in Hanover in 1527. Subsequently to those dates other pumps were set up on London Bridge, and installations of the same class of machinery were made in Paris in 1608, usually operated by water-power in some simple manner, as by the force of the water-currents. In 1624 the Paris supply received a reinforcement of 200,000 gallons per day by the completion of the aqueduct Arcueil. The New River Company was incorporated in 1619 for the partial supply of the city of London, and it began to lay its pipes at that time. As its name indicates, it took its supply from New River, and the inception of its business is believed to mark the first application of the principle of supplying each house with water. This company is still in existence and furnishes a considerable portion of the present London supply. =142. First Steam-pumps.=—The application of steam to the creation or development of power by Watt, near the end of the eighteenth century, stimulated greatly the construction of water-works, as it offered a very convenient and economical system of pumping. It seems probable that the first steam-pumps were used in London in 1761. Twenty years later a steam-pump was erected in Paris, while another was installed in 1783. The second steam-pump in London was probably constructed in 1787. In all these earlier instances of the use of steam-pumps river supplies were naturally used.