a restraining influence--the breeze doing the principal part of the work. In the bat the wing is jointed as in the bird, and folded during the up stroke. As, however, the bat’s wing, as has been already stated, is covered by a continuous and more or less elastic membrane, it follows that it cannot be opened up to admit of the air passing through it during the up stroke. Flight in the bat is therefore secured by alternately diminishing and increasing the area of the wing during the up and down strokes--the wing rotating upon its root and along its anterior margin, and presenting a variety of kite-like surfaces, during its ascent and descent, precisely as in the bird (fig. 80, p. 149, and fig. 83, p. 158). [Illustration: FIG. 102.--Shows the upward inclination of the body and the flexed condition of the wings (_a b_, _e f_; _a´ b´_, _e´ f´_) in the flight of the kingfisher. The body and wings when taken together form a kite. Compare with fig. 59, p. 126, where the wings are fully extended.] _Flexion of the Wing necessary to the Flight of Birds._--Considerable diversity of opinion exists as to whether birds do or do not flex their wings in flight. The discrepancy is owing to the great difficulty experienced in analysing animal movements, particularly when, as in the case of the wings, they are consecutive and rapid. My own opinion is, that the wings are flexed in flight, but that all wings are not flexed to the same extent, and that what holds true of one wing does not necessarily hold true of another. To see the flexing of the wing properly, the observer should be either immediately above the bird or directly beneath it. If the bird be contemplated from before, behind, or from the side, the up and down strokes of the pinion distract the attention and complicate the movement to such an extent as to render the observation of little value. In watching rooks proceeding leisurely against a slight breeze, I have over and over again satisfied myself that the wings are flexed during the up stroke, the mere extension and flexion, with very little of a down stroke, in such instances sufficing for propulsion. I have also observed it in the pigeon in full flight, and likewise in the starling, sparrow, and kingfisher (fig. 102, p. 183). It occurs principally at the wrist-joint, and gives to the wing the peculiar quiver or tremor so apparent in rapid flight, and in young birds at feeding-time. The object to be attained is manifest. By the flexing of the wing in flight, the “_remiges_,” or rowing feathers, are opened up or thrown out of position, and the air permitted to escape--advantage being thus taken of the peculiar action of the individual feathers and the higher degree of differentiation perceptible in the wing of the bird as compared with that of the bat and insect.