In 1838 New York founded the “Free Banking System,” by which banks could be formed without application to the legislature. These associations were required to deposit with the State Comptroller United States or State stocks equal to a five per cent. stock, or bonds and mortgages on improved real estate worth twice the sum secured, and equal in amount to their note circulation. The Comptroller issued the notes to them. Up to 1843 twenty-nine of these banks failed—circulation, $1,233,374; nominal value of securities, $1,555,338. These produced $953,371, or 74 per cent. of the circulation secured. The law was then amended to exclude all but United States stocks, and those of the State, which must be equal to six per cent. A wiser provision had been adopted in 1840, requiring all the State banks to redeem their notes, either in New York City, Albany or Troy, at a discount of one-half of one per cent. In 1851 this discount was reduced to one-quarter of one per cent. After 1851 two New York banks started the Redemption System. The notes of such of the country banks as kept deposits with them were returned, the redeeming banks dividing the discounts between themselves and the issuers. This system was useful, as it forced a constant redemption; but see how it worked in 1857. After 1838 no more Safety Fund banks were chartered, and the system gradually lapsed. But a curious story could be told of how it ran through the West. That region was deluged with “safety” money—all but the safety. In 1846 the new Constitution of New York took from the legislature all power to pass any act granting any special charter for banking purposes; such organizations to be under general laws. After 1850 bank stockholders were to be liable to the amount of their shares for all the debts, and holders of notes to be preferred creditors. Now, for the redemption banks in 1857. These banks, useful in their way in ordinary times, did harm in that panic. A few years before a new source of profit was suggested to some New York banks. If the redemption that was distributed among the money-brokers could be monopolized by one or two institutions it would yield a rich revenue; and it could easily be attracted by reducing the rates of redemption so low as to exclude individual competition. The system was based somewhat upon the Suffolk system. Coupled with the payment of interest on country deposits, it had grown into astonishing activity before 1857. It worked admirably as a piece of machinery, with the popular commendation that it restricted the bank currency by enforcing prompt redemption, and saved the merchants a heavy brokerage. It was a great convenience in the first days of the panic, when private capital was withdrawn from the purchase of currency, and when the merchants, but for the redeeming banks, would have been overburdened with unavailable notes.