The Normans, who arrived with their short dresses and coats of mail, adopted the costume of the Franks, which they followed in all its phases; and in the following century they began to introduce the fashions of the Continent into England. At the time of the Conquest, however, the custom generally prevailed among the Normans of shaving not only the beard, but the back of the head, as appears from the figures in the Bayeux tapestry. In the tenth and eleventh centuries the costume of the higher classes usually consisted of a long tunic, confined by a girdle, over which was a large cloak. The soldiers wore a short coat of mail over a tunic, which descended to the knees; their arms comprised the long-bow, the crossbow, the sword, lance, buckler, and gisarme. The gisarme is said to be the weapon called the brown bill by Chaucer. It was in general use in the twelfth century, and was retained as late as the battle of Flodden. The costume of the women of Normandy consisted of a simple head-dress, with long robes girded about the waist. In paintings of this period the hair is seldom seen, but the manner in which it was worn appears to have varied. Sometimes it is represented as gathered tightly about the head, and sometimes it descends in long plaits upon the shoulders. Princesses and ladies of rank wore a robe of ermine, or a tunic either with or without sleeves; a veil was also added, which covered the head, and descended in folds over the bosom. [Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH CANDLESTICK.] After the death of Charles the Great literature and the arts in France experienced a gradual decline until the tenth century, when a new and remarkable impetus was given to learning by the Moors in Spain. English learning, which had flourished during the reigns of Alfred and his immediate successors, began rapidly to decay during the stormy period of the Danish invasions; and from the time of the accession of Canute to that of the Norman Conquest little or no revival of letters appears to have taken place. During the period which intervened between these two events the country enjoyed a considerable degree of repose, and it can hardly be doubted that some of the schools and religious houses were re-established; but the long period of peace was marked by the growth of indolence and sensuality among the people, rather than by the spread of education. [Illustration: ENGLISH BED. (_Cotton MS. Claud. B._ 4, _fol._ 27 _b._)]