The Institution of Chivalry--Affairs in the Holy Land--Pilgrimages--Persecution of Christians--Peter the Hermit--Crusade Decided on--Progress of Peter's Mission--The Council of Clermont--Attitude of Pope Urban--The Truce of God--Expedition of Walter the Penniless--Excesses of the Crusaders--Defeat of the Christians by the Turks--Conduct of the Emperor Alexius--Disaster in Hungary--Geoffrey de Bouillon--March of his Army--Robert of Normandy and his Troops--Imprisonment of Hugh of Vermandois--Arrival of Godfrey before Constantinople--The Byzantine Court--The Church of Santa Sophia--Scenes of Magnificence--Reception of Godfrey by the Emperor--Tancred's Army leaves Italy--Bohemond's Submission--Count Raymond at Constantinople--Arrival of Robert of Normandy--Siege of Nicæa--Treachery of the Emperor--Severe Struggle with the Turks--Bravery of Robert--Flight of the Turks--Crusaders' Sufferings on their March--Siege and Fall of Antioch--Defeat of the Persians--Pestilence at Antioch--Arrival of the Crusaders before Jerusalem--Fall of the City--Vengeance of the Crusaders--Godfrey elected King of Jerusalem--Hospitallers and Templars--Close of the First Crusade. In the year 1096 Robert determined to join a crusade then about to set out for the Holy Land, and to enable him to do so, he agreed to pledge his duchy of Normandy into the hands of Rufus for a sum of £6,666. This transaction is described by the historians as having been a mortgage for three years; but it must have been evident, even to the uncalculating mind of Robert, that he had little chance of regaining possession of his property at the end of that time. To enable us to understand this extraordinary proceeding on the part of Robert, it will be necessary to examine the causes which led to those expeditions which are called the Crusades. These causes, which had been in operation for hundreds of years, were two, of very opposite nature--namely, in the East, the spread of Mahometan power; and in the West, the institution of chivalry, preceded by the introduction of Christianity. The institution of chivalry had for its object the cultivation of those virtues which may be classed under the word _manhood_, in its best and widest sense. The true knight was supposed to be pious, truthful, and brave; a generous friend, a gallant warrior, a devoted lover. It was necessary for him to add great strength of body, and skill in all manly exercises, to gentleness of manner and culture of mind. Terrible in battle, it was his duty to wield the sword of justice, to strike down the oppressor; but to help the weak, and give his life, if need be, for the innocent. [Illustration: INITIATION INTO THE ORDER OF KNIGHTHOOD. (_See p._ 134.)]