the same way. As bearing on this point, I may mention that the Nayar women living to the east of Calicut cannot cross the river backwater, and come into the town." It may be noted in this connection that the Paikara river on the Nilgiri hills is sacred to the Todas, and, for fear of mishap from arousing the wrath of the river-god, a pregnant Toda woman will not venture to cross it. No Toda will use the river water for any purpose, and they do not touch it, unless they have to ford it. They then walk through it, and, on reaching the opposite bank, bow their heads. Even when they walk over the Paikara bridge, they take their hands out of the putkuli (body-cloth) as a mark of respect. The complexity of the sub-divisions among the Nayars in North Malabar is made manifest by the following account thereof in the Gazetteer of Malabar. "There are exogamous sub-divisions (perhaps corresponding to original tarwads) called kulams, and these are grouped to form the sub-castes which are usually endogamous. It is quite impossible to attempt a complete account of the scheme, but to give some idea of its nature one example may be taken, and dealt with in some detail; and for this purpose the portion of Kurumbranad known as Payyanad will serve. This is the country between the Kottapuzha and Porapuzha rivers, and is said to have been given by a Raja of Kurumbranad to a certain Ambadi Kovilagam Tamburatti (the stanam or title of the senior lady of the Zamorin Raja's family). In this tract or nad there were originally six stanis or chieftains, who ruled, under the Raja, with the assistance, or subject to the constitutional control, of four assemblies of Nayars called Kuttams. Each kuttam had its hereditary president. In this tract there are seven groups of kulams. The highest includes twelve kulams, Vengalat, Pattillat, Viyyur, Nelliot, Atunkudi, Amayangalat, Nelloli, Nilancheri, Rendillat, Pulliyani, Orakatteri, and Venmeri. Of these, the Pattillat and Rendillat (members of the ten and members of the two illams or houses) affix the title Adiyodi to their names, the last three affix the title Nambiyar, and the rest affix Nayar. Of the six stanis already mentioned, three, with the title of Adiyodi, belong to the Vengalat kulam, while two of the presidents of kuttams belonged to the Pattillat kulam. The younger members of the stani houses are called kidavu. It is the duty of women of Viyyur and Nelliot kulams to join in the bridal procession of members of the Vengalat kulam, the former carrying lamps, and the latter salvers containing flowers, while the Rendillat Adiyodis furnish cooks to the same class. Pattillat Adiyodis and Orakatteri Nambiyars observe twelve days' pollution, while all the other kulams observe fifteen. The second group consists of six kulams, Eravattur, Ara-Eravattur (or half Eravattur), and Attikodan Nayars, Tonderi Kidavus, Punnan Nambiyars, and Menokkis. All these observe fifteen days' pollution. The third