As early as 964, in a charter to the monks of Worcester dated at Gloucester, Edgar styles this a "royal city." Several times it suffered from the incursions of the Danes in the eighth century, and more especially so in the tenth, when it was taken and nearly destroyed by fire in the reign of Ethelred II. This monarch's reign seems to have been a disastrous one for the kingdom. In the first place, through the ambitious schemes of his mother Elfrida, who caused his stepbrother Edward to be murdered, he wrongfully occupied the throne in 979. On account of his tragic death Edward came to be styled "the Martyr." A reign thus inauspiciously commenced proved to be a constant struggle against the Danes. The King acquired the name of Ethelred the Unready; for when the Danes attacked the kingdom, instead of being prepared to repel them, he endeavoured to counteract the evil with large sums of money. As this only served as a further incentive to fresh invasions, Ethelred eventually compounded with them in 994. On condition that these plundering expeditions should cease, he offered them tribute. This is the first mention we get of the "danegelt," as it was called. With the exception of the reign of Edward the Confessor, it continued to be levied almost without interruption till the time of Henry II. The only benefit that Ethelred's reign conferred upon his subjects was the act of atonement made by Elfrida. To ease her conscience and remorse for the murder of Edward, she caused the foundation of several monasteries, and performed penances. Edmund Ironsides, who succeeded in 1016, was the exact opposite in character to his father Ethelred. He continued a serious obstacle to Canute and his Danes. After the last of five pitched battles Canute and he agreed to divide the kingdom between them: Canute to have Mercia and Northumberland, and Edmund the remainder. However, through the murder of Edmund a few days after, at Oxford, Canute usurped the throne of England in 1017. During his reign of eighteen years, except for a dispute with Scotland over Cumberland, the country enjoyed peace at home. This peaceful term, in conjunction with the passing over of the dreaded millennium, when the end of the world had been expected, caused the great building activity which, under the Norman Conquest, attained such wonderful results. In the meanwhile the trade resources of Gloucester, even before the Conquest, had greatly advanced, and had probably outdistanced in ratio those of more important commercial centres of England. No doubt the natives had learned many hitherto unknown industrial arts from the Romans. [Illustration: GLOUCESTER THE CATHEDRAL AND OLD PARLIAMENT HOUSE]