[161] For the analysis of these two remarkable and elaborately worked-out characters, see _Chaucer for Schools_, p. 111. [162] Basse Bretaigne in France, called anciently Britannia Armorica. [163] See Notes to this tale, p. 91, touching the homage paid to women during the middle ages. [164] Penmark is placed on the maps on the western coast of Brittany, between Brest and Port l’Orient. [165] The only means of subsistence a knight had was fighting--of course for hire. [166] Backgammon. [167] About the 20th of May by our almanac. [168] _Clerk_ at that time denoted a man of learning, and a student at the universities--generally in holy orders. [169] _Natural Magic_, Chaucer.--All kinds of conjuring were very popular at this time. The minstrels or _jougleurs_ added to their other accomplishments marvellous skill in sleight of hand (derived from the East): hence the modern signification of the word _juggler_. It is quite clear that many of their tricks were due to electro-biology, a science known to those mighty cultivators and preservers of learning, the Arabs. For some knowledge of what we owe to the Arabs, and of their influence upon mediæval European literature, I refer the reader to the ‘Literary Remains of Emanuel Deutsch’ (published by John Murray), containing two articles on Arabic Poetry; and to Draper’s popular ‘History of the Conflict between Religion and Science.’ [170] This and the following line are not in Morris’s edition. [171] Bell’s edition. This and the next six lines are not in Morris’s edition. [172] Equal to eight or ten times the amount now. [173] Equivalent to ‘What is done cannot be undone.’ [174] I could not resist inserting the vigorous old words. [175] The ale-stake was a stake set up as a sign before the inn, generally adorned with a bush. This custom prevails in Normandy still, where you may see a goodly bunch of mistletoe hanging out wherever wine or cider is sold. [176] “A small bell used formerly to be rung before the corpse as it was carried to the grave, to give notice to those who were charitably disposed that they might pray for the soul of the deceased. Our ‘passing bell’ has the same origin, though the reason for it has ceased.”--_Bell._ [177] “Perhaps an allusion to the great pestilence which devastated Europe during the 14th century. _This pestilence_ means _during_ this pestilence, as _this_ year means _during_ this year.”--_Bell._ [178] “This is still the ceremony used in taking an oath in courts of justice in Prussia.”--_Bell._ Notice the emphasis laid on their close friendship, and their constant allusion to their being all ‘one,’ over and above the solemnity of the profane vow they make.