Now a few words on the manner in which horses react upon the call of their names. We are not concerned with those that are seldom or never called by name (such as those in the cavalry). I have not discovered one horse that constantly and unequivocally reacted upon the mention of its name (though I would not assert that there are none that would do so.) I was nearly always able to convince the owners or grooms, who at first had maintained a contrary opinion, that any inarticulate sound was capable of producing the same effect as the calling of the name. What the significance of inflection may be, I am not at all certain. When a certain one of a number of horses standing in the same stable was called, all of them responded by pricking their ears, raising their heads, or else turning about. For this reason the reaction of the horse specifically called lost all significance. Likewise the call which is ordinarily used in lunging when the man in the center of the circle wishes the horse to change its gait, or to advance toward him, also proved ineffectual as soon as the man inhibited every sort of movement. A slight nod, on the other hand, was always effective. Several times I have tried to call horses to me, when they were free and running about in the arena, but was unsuccessful. After I had given them some sugar, however, they would always come to me--whether I had called or not--and would then refuse to leave my side. But this is a matter of common observation. I would, however, regard all of these tests as merely provisional. In spite of the greatest effort, it was not always possible to control all the conditions of the experiment, and furthermore, the number of tests would have to be materially increased in order to yield an appreciation of the difference due to race, age, and the individual variation and training of horses. But we may, even now, be sure of one thing. Over against the certainty with which horses react to visual stimuli (in the form of movements perceived), it does not appear that the formation of auditory associations is greatly favored by nature in these animals,--indeed, auditory associations are far less common than is generally supposed.[AE] Horses compare very unfavorably with dogs in this respect. The latter easily learn to react with a high degree of precision to auditory signs,--as I learned from a series of experiments which I was enabled to perform. The Osten horse, therefore, does not stand alone among his kind in his inferior auditory equipment, as one might be tempted to believe at first blush.