proportion as the clay is free from foreign particles, and in such a perfectly homogeneous substance as beeswax, he developed a more perfect cleavage than is possible in clay. His theory, which is now universally accepted, is, that the clay itself is composed of grains which are flattened by pressure, the granular structure with irregular fracture in all directions, changing to a scaly structure with very easy and plane fracture or splitting in one definite direction. Observations on distorted fossils and nodules have shown that when slaty cleavage is developed, the rock is, on the average, reduced in the direction of the pressure to two-fifths of its original extent, and correspondingly extended in the vertical direction. Thus, whether rocks yield to the horizontal pressure in the earth’s crust, by folding and corrugation, or by the flattening of their constituent particles, they are alike shortened horizontally and extended vertically; and it is impossible to overestimate the importance of these facts in the formation of mountains. FAULTS OR DISPLACEMENTS.—We may readily conceive that the forces which were adequate to elevate, corrugate, and even crush vast masses of solid rock were also sufficient to crack and break them; and since the fractures indicate that the strains have been applied unequally, it will be seen that unequal movements of the parts must often result. If this unequal movement takes place, _i.e._, if the rocks on opposite sides of a fracture of the earth’s crust do not move together, but slip over each other, a _fault_ is produced. The two sides may move in opposite directions, or in the same direction but unequally, or one side may remain stationary while the other moves up or down. It is simply essential that the movement should be unequal in direction, or amount, or both; that there should be an actual slip, so that strata that were once continuous no longer correspond in position, but lie at different levels on opposite sides of the fracture. The vertical difference in movement is known as the _throw_, _slip_, or _displacement_ of the fault. Fault-fractures rarely approach the horizontal direction, but are usually highly inclined or approximately vertical. When the fault is inclined, as in Fig. 28, the actual slipping in the plane of the fault exceeds the vertical throw, for the movement is then partly horizontal, the beds being pulled apart endwise. The inclination of faults, as of veins and dikes, should be measured from the vertical and called the _hade_. Faults are sometimes hundreds of miles in length; and the throw may vary from a fraction of an inch to thousands of feet. [Illustration: Fig. 28.—Section of a normal fault.] [Illustration: Fig. 29.—Section of a reversed fault.]