At first glance there seems to be here absolutely nothing like our modern observatories. Ancient and mediæval astronomers had indeed no telescopes, being ignorant of the properties of lenses: therefore they were unable to study the features of any heavenly body except the moon, and they had no way of finding out anything about their physical constitution; but they had many ways of measuring their distances and motions, and even the angular sizes of sun and moon, and their instruments were the forerunners of our sextants, micrometers, and transit instruments, our chronometers and sidereal clocks. [Illustration: PEKIN OBSERVATORY. [_To face p. 114._ _From a photograph taken in 1888, and published in the “Bulletin de la Société belge d’Astronomie”._] The gnomon has been already described[47], and it was one of the most valuable instruments used by the Greeks. The Pekin gnomon at the right of figure 21 was more than 40 feet in height, and on the top had a little plate of copper which was pierced by a hole as fine as the eye of a needle: the observations made with this were much more exact than observations of the end of the shadow, which must always be vague, and the Chinese records of the sun’s movements made with this instrument between 1270 and 1280 A.D. are of great value in modern research. Ptolemy explains that his gnomon was made accurately vertical by the use of a plumb-line, and that one way of testing the level of the surface on which the shadow fell was to flood it with water. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ [47] See p. 26. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Clepsydras, or water-clocks, were used by the Greeks, and many kinds of sundials for telling the time by day. Tables were also made of the risings of bright stars which served for clocks by night. The instrument in the middle of the platform is a quadrant, and beyond this on the left is a large celestial globe, which, however, only dates from the Jesuit missionaries of the seventeenth century. Ptolemy says that his globe was made the colour of the night sky; Sirius being marked in his proper place, all other stars were placed relatively to him, and in their own colours as nearly as might be; the Galaxy was drawn, and the figures of the constellations outlined. The globe was arranged to turn on either the poles of the ecliptic or of the equator; circles of wood represented the horizon and meridian, and the pole could be arranged at any altitude according to the latitude of the place.[48] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ [48] _Almagest,_ Bk. viii. ------------------------------------------------------------------------