=The mechanics of crater explosions.=—If we now turn from the lava volcano to the active cinder cone, we encounter an entire change of scene. In place of the quiet flow and convulsive movements of the molten lava, we here meet with repeated explosions of greater or less violence. If we are to profitably study the manner of the explosions, considering the volcanic vent as a great experimental apparatus, it would be well to select for our purpose a volcano which is in a not too violent mood. The well-known cinder cone of Stromboli in the Eolian group of islands north of Sicily has, with short and unimportant interruptions, remained in a state of light explosive activity since the beginning of the Christian era. Rising as it does some three thousand feet directly out of the Mediterranean, and displaying by day a white steam cap and an intermittent glow by night, its summit can be seen for a distance of a hundred miles at sea and it has justly been called the “Lighthouse of the Mediterranean.” The “flash” interval of this beacon may vary from one to twenty minutes, and it may show, furthermore, considerable variation of intensity. For the reason that the crater of the mountain is located at one side and at a considerable distance below the actual summit, the opportunity here afforded of looking into the crater is most favorable whenever the direction of the wind is such as to push aside the overhanging steam cloud (Fig. 111). Long ago the Italian vulcanologist Spallanzani undertook to make observations from above the crater, and many others since his day have profited by his example. Within the crater of the volcano there is seen a lava surface lightly frozen over and traversed by many cracks from which vapor jets are issuing. Here, as in the Kilauea crater, there are open pools of boiling lava. From some of these, lava is seen welling out to overflow the frozen surface; from others, steam is ejected in puffs as though from the stack of a locomotive. Within others lava is seen heaving up and down in violent ebullition, and at intervals a great bubble of steam is ejected with explosive violence, carrying up with it a considerable quantity of the still molten lava, together with its scumlike surface, to fall outside the crater and rattle down the mountain’s slope into the sea. Following this explosion the lava surface in the pool is lowered and the agitation is renewed, to culminate after the further lapse of a few minutes in a second explosion of the same nature. The rise of the lava which precedes the ejection appears at night as a brighter reflection or glow from the overhanging steam cloud—the flash seen by the mariner from his vessel. [Illustration: FIG. 111.—The volcano of Stromboli, showing the excentric position of the crater (after a sketch by Judd).]