=Body form and structure.=--The mammalian body varies greatly. Its variety of form and general organization is explained by the facts that, although most of the species live on the surface of the earth, some are burrowers in the ground, some flyers in the air, and some swimmers in the water. Mammals never have more than two pairs of limbs; in most cases both pairs are well developed and adapted for terrestrial progression. In the aerial bats the fore limbs are modified into organs of flight; among the aquatic seals, sea-lions, walruses, and whales both sets are modified to be swimming flippers or paddles. In many of these aquatic forms the hind limbs are greatly reduced or even completely wanting. Most mammals are externally clothed with hair, which is a peculiarly modified epidermal process. Each hair, usually cylindrical, is composed of two parts, a central pith containing air, and an outer more solid cortex; each hair rises from a short papilla sunk at the bottom of a follicle lying in the true skin. In some mammals the hairs assume the form of spines or "quills," as in the porcupine. The hairy coat is virtually wanting in whales and is very sparse in certain other forms, the elephant, for example, which has its skin greatly thickened. The claws of beasts of prey, the hooves of the hoofed mammals, and the outer horny sheaths of the hollow-horned ruminants are all epidermal structures. The bones of mammals are firmer than those of other vertebrates, containing a larger proportion of salts of lime. Among the different forms the spinal column varies largely in the number of vertebræ, this variation being chiefly due to differences in length of tail. Apart from the caudal vertebræ their usual number is about thirty. The mammalian skull is very firm and rigid, all the bones composing it, excepting the lower jaw, the tiny auditory ossicles, and the slender bones of the hyoid arch, being immovably articulated together. The correspondence between the bones of the two sets of limbs is very apparent. The number of digits varies in different mammals, and also in the fore and hind limbs of a single species. Among the Ungulates the reduction in the number of digits is especially noticeable; the forefoot of a pig has four digits, that of the cow two, and that of the horse one. The two short "splint" bones in the horse are remnants of lost digits. The teeth are important structures in mammals, being used not only for tearing and masticating food, but as weapons of offence and defence. A tooth consists of an inner soft pulp (in old teeth the pulp may become converted into bone-like material) surrounded by hard white dentine or ivory, which is covered by a thin layer of enamel, the hardest tissue known in the animal body. A hard cement sometimes covers as a thin layer the outer surface of the root, and may also cover the enamel of the crown. The teeth in most forms are of three groups: (_a_) the incisors, with sharp cutting edges and