"It is not reasonable," says Plutarch, "to use things which have life and feeling, as we would use a shoe or any other instrument, throwing it away when worn out and ruined by dint of service done; if it were for no other cause than to induce and stimulate us to constant compassion, we should accustom ourselves to gentleness and charitableness, even to performing the humblest offices of kindness; as for me, I should never have the heart to sell an ox who for a long time had ploughed my land, because, by reason of old age, he can no longer work." A very serious question has been raised these latter times, namely, the question of _vivisection_, and how far, in a scientific point of view, we have a right to practice on living animals. The point is not to interdict to science what is the indispensable condition of its progress and propagation; but we should limit ourself to the strictly necessary, and not with revolting prodigality multiply sacrifices that are not absolutely useful. One of the principal reasons for condemning cruelty toward animals, is that through the instinct of imitation and sympathy men may get into the habit of doing to others what they have seen practiced on animals. There is a story of a child who caused his brother to suffer the same death he had just seen inflicted on an animal.[57] The men who are brutal toward animals are likewise so toward each other, and treat with the same cruelty their wives and children. It is by reason of these considerations of social utility and humanity that the law in France decided to interfere to prevent and punish the bad treatment inflicted upon animals;[58] and the consequences of this measure have been most happy. CHAPTER VII. DUTIES TOWARD THE STATE. SUMMARY. =Three groups of societies among men:= _Humanity_, _the family_, _the country_, _or the State_. =Analysis of patriotism.= _Foundation of the State._--Law and rights. Public authority: distinction between society and the State. The three powers. Sovereignty. The right of punishment. =Duties toward the State:= 1. _Obedience to the laws._--The _Crito_ of Plato. Pretended exceptions to this principle. Criticising the laws is not disobedience. 2. _Respect to magistrates._--The magistrates being the representatives of the laws, to respect them is to respect the law itself; to insult them is to insult the law. 3. _The ballot._--Obligation to vote. The character of the ballot: 1, _disinterested_; 2, _free_; 3, _enlightened_. 4. _Taxes._--Immorality of frauds against the State. 5. _Military service._--Legal and moral obligation. Attempts to escape it: 1, by mutilations; 2, by simulated infirmities; 3, by desertion; want of discipline. 6. _Educational obligation._ =Civil courage.=--Noted example: Boissy d'Anglas.