In 132 the Jews of Palestine rebelled again. Hadrian had forbidden circumcision as illegal mutilation: he had also replaced Jerusalem by a city of his own, Aelia Capitolina, and the temple of Yahweh by a temple of Jupiter. Apart from these bitter provocations--the prohibition of the sign of the covenant and the desecration of the sacred place--the Jews had a leader who was recognized as Messiah by the rabbi Aqiba. Though the majority of the rabbis looked for no such deliverer and refused to admit his claims, Barcochebas (q.v.) drew the people after him to struggle for their national independence. For three years and a half he held his own and issued coins in the name of Simon, which commemorate the liberation of Jerusalem. Some attempt was apparently made to rebuild the Temple; and the Jews of the Dispersion, who had perhaps been won over by Aqiba, supported the rebellion. Indeed even Gentiles helped them, so that the whole world (Dio Cassius says) was stirred. Hadrian sent his best generals against the rebels, and at length they were driven from Jerusalem to Bethar (135). The Jews were forbidden to enter the new city of Jerusalem on pain of death. BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive of modern books dealing with the period is Emil Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1901 foll.). Exception has been taken to a certain lack of sympathy with the Jews, especially the rabbis, which has been detected in the author. But at least the book remains an indispensable storehouse of references to ancient and modern authorities. An earlier edition was translated into English under the title _History of the Jewish People_ (Edinburgh, 1890, 1891). Of shorter histories, D. A. Schlatter's _Geschichte Israel's von Alexander dem Grossen bis Hadrian_ (2nd ed., 1906) is perhaps the least dependent upon Schürer and attempts more than others to interpret the fragmentary evidence available. Dr R. H. Charles has done much by his editions to restore to their proper prominence in connexion with Jewish history the _Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs_, _The Book of Jubilees_, _Enoch_, &c. But Schürer gives a complete bibliography to which it must suffice to refer. For the Sanhedrin see SYNEDRIUM. (J. H. A. H.) III.--FROM THE DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES