AUTHORITIES.--1. _Ancient_: (a) Pagan writers. Of these the most trustworthy and impartial is the historian Ammianus Marcellinus (xv. 8-xxv.), a contemporary and in part an eye-witness of the events he describes (other historians are Zosimus and Eutropius); the sophist Libanius, who in speaking of his imperial friend shows himself creditably free from exaggeration and servility; Eunapius (in his lives of Maximus, Oribasius, the physician and friend of Julian, and Prohaeresius) and Claudius Mamertinus, the panegyrist, are less trustworthy. (b) Christian writers. Gregory of Nazianzus, the author of two violent invectives against Julian; Rufinus; Socrates; Sozomen; Theodoret; Philostorgius; the poems of Ephraem Syrus written in 363; Zonaras; Cedrenus; and later Byzantine chronographers. The impression which Julian produced on the Christians of the East is reflected in two Syriac romances published by J. G. E. Hoffmann, _Julianos der Abtrünnige_ (1880; see also Th. Nöldeke in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_ [1874], xxviii. 263). 2. _Modern._ For works before 1878 see R. Engelmann, _Scriptores Graeci_ (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880). Of later works the most important are G. H. Rendall, _The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity_ (1879); Alice Gardner, _Julian, Philosopher and Emperor_ (1895); G. Negri, _Julian the Apostate_ (Eng. trans., 1905); E. Müller, _Kaiser Flavius Claudius Julianus_ (1901); P. Allard, _Julien l'apostat_ (1900-1903); G. Mau, _Die Religionsphilosophie Kaiser Julians in seinen Reden auf König Helios und die Göttermutter_ (1907); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (1906), p. 356; W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_ (1898), § 603; J. Geffcken, "Kaiser Julianus und die Streitschriften seiner Gegner," in _Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum_ (1908), pp. 161-195. The sketch by Gibbon (_Decline and Fall_, chs. xix., xxii.-xxiv.) and the articles by J. Wordsworth in Smith's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_ and A. Harnack in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie_ ix. (1901) are valuable, the last especially for the bibliography. (T. K.; J. H. F.) FOOTNOTE: [1] For the date of Julian's birth see Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_ (ed. Bury), ii. 247, note 11. The choice seems to lie between May 331 and May 332. If the former be adopted, Julian must have died in the thirty-third, not the thirty-second, year of his age (as stated in Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 3, 23).