are goddesses"; on the other hand, some universals are not judgments of non-existence, e.g. "every existing man is mortal." Neither kind is always a judgment of existence, but each is sometimes the one and sometimes the other. In no case is a universal hypothetical, unless we think it under a condition; for in a universal judgment about the non-existing, e.g. about all conceivable centaurs, we do not think, "If anything is a centaur," because we do not believe that there are any; and in a universal judgment about the existent, e.g. about all existing men, we do not think, "If anything is a man," because we believe that there is a whole class of men existing at different times and places. The cause of Sigwart's error is his misconception of "all." So far as he follows Aristotle in saying that "all" does not mean a definite number of individuals he is right; but when he says that we mean no individuals at all he deserts Aristotle and goes wrong. By "all" we mean every individual whatever of a kind; and when from the experience of sense and memory we start with particular judgments of existence, and infer universal judgments of existence and scientific laws, we further mean those existing individuals which we have experienced, and every individual whatever of the kind which exists. We mean neither a definite number of individuals, nor yet an infinite number, but an incalculable number, whether experienced or inferred to exist. We do not mean existing here and now, nor yet out of time and place, but at any time and place (_semper et ubique_)--past, present and future being treated as simply existing, by what logicians used to call _suppositio naturalis_. We mean then by "all existing" every similar individual whatever, whenever, and wherever existing. Hence Sigwart is right in saying that "All bodies are extended" means "Whatever is a body is extended," but wrong in identifying this form with "If anything is a body it is extended." "Whatever" is not "if anything." For the same reason it is erroneous to confuse "all existing" with a general idea. Nor does the use of abstract ideas and terms make any difference. When Bosanquet says that in "Heat is a mode of motion" there is no reference to individual objects, but "a pure hypothetical form which absolutely neglects the existence of objects," he falls far short of expressing the nature of this scientific judgment, for in his _Theory of Heat_ Clerk Maxwell describes it as "believing heat as it exists in a hot body to be in the form of kinetic energy." As Bacon would say, it is a belief that all individual bodies _qua_ hot are individually but similarly moving in their particles. When, again, Bradley and Bosanquet speak of the universal as if it always meant one ideal content referred to reality, they forget that in universal judgments of existence, such as "All men existing are mortal," we believe that every individually existing man