See I. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_, I. and II. (Halle a.S., 1889-1890); _Zahiriten_ (Leipzig, 1884); E. Sachau, _Zur ältesten Geschichte des muhammedanischen Rechts_ (Vienna Akad., 1870) and _Muhammedanisches Recht_ (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1897); Snouck Hurgronje, review of preceding in _Z.D.M.G._ liii. 125 seq. and "Le droit musulman" (_Rev. de l'hist. des religions_, xxxvii. 1 seq. and 174 seq.); Juynboll, _Handleiding tot de Kennis von de mohammedaansche Wet_ (Leiden, 1903); Von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen_, i. 470 seq. (Vienna, 1875-1877); Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, pp. 285 seq. (London, 1896); D. B. Macdonald, _Development of Muslim Theology_, &c., pp. 65 seq. (New York, 1903); Bukhari, _Les Traditions islamiques traduites ... par O. Houdas et W. Marcel_ (Paris, 1906); N. B. E. Bailie, _Digest of Moohummadan Law_ (2 vols., London, 1875-1887). A good bibliography appeared in the _Bulletin of the New York Public Library_ for January 1907. (D. B. Ma.) MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. The Mahommedan religion is generally known as _Islam_--the name given to it by Mahomet himself--and meaning the resigning or submitting oneself to God. The participle of the same Arabic verb, _Muslim_ (in English usually spelt Moslem), is used for one who professes this religion. The expression "Mahommedan religion" has arisen in the West probably from analogy with "Christian religion," but is not recognized as a proper one by Moslem writers. Islam claims to be a divinely revealed religion given to the world by Mahomet, who was the last of a succession of inspired prophets. Its _doctrine_ and _practices_ are to be found in (i) the Book of God--the Koran--which was sent down from the highest heaven to Gabriel in the lowest, who in turn revealed it in sections to Mahomet; (2) the collections of tradition (_hadith_) containing the sayings and manner of life (_sunna_) of the Prophet; (3) the use of analogy (_qiyas_) as applied to (i) and (2); and (4) the universal consent (_ijma'_) of the believers. The _worship_ of Islam consists in (1) the recital of the creed; (2) the recital of the ordained prayers; (3) the fast during the month of Ramadhan; (4) alms-giving; (5) the _hajj_, the pilgrimage to Mecca. The _theology_ of Islam finds its first public expression among the orthodox in the teaching of al-Ash`ari (d. after 932), but had its real beginning among the sects that arose soon after the death of Mahomet. Islam is the latest of the so-called world-religions, and as several of the others were practised in Arabia at the time of Mahomet, and the Prophet undoubtedly borrowed some of his doctrines and some of his practices from these, it is necessary to enumerate them and to indicate the extent to which they prevailed in the Arabian world. _Relations with Other Religions._--The religions practised in Arabia at the time of Mahomet were heathenism, Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism.