AUTHORITIES.--See _Traité des projections des cartes géographiques_, by A. Germain (Paris, 1865) and _A Treatise on Projections_, by T. Craig, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (Washington, 1882). Both Germain and Craig (following Germain) make use of the term _projections by development_, a term which is apt to convey the impression that the spherical surface is developable. As this is not the case, and since such projections are conical, it is best to avoid the use of the term. For the history of the subject see d'Avezac, "Coup d'oeil historique sur la projection des cartes géographiques," _Société de géographie de Paris_ (1863). J. H. Lambert (_Beiträge zum Gebrauch der Mathematik, u.s.w._ Berlin, 1772) devised the following projections of the above list: 1, 15, 17, and 21; his transverse cylindrical orthomorphic and the transverse cylindrical equal-area have not been described, as they are seldom used. Among other contributors we mention Mercator, Euler, Gauss, C. B. Mollweide (1774-1825), Lagrange, Cassini, R. Bonne (1727-1795), Airy and Colonel A. R. Clarke. (C. F. Cl.; A. R. C.) FOOTNOTES: [1] The ancient Greeks called a map _Pinax_, The Romans _Tabula geographica_. _Mappa mundi_ was the medieval Latin for a map of the world which the ancients called _Tabula totius orbis descriptionem continens_. [2] Close, "The Ideal Topographical Map," _Geog. Journal_, vol. xxv. (1905). [3] K. Peucker, _Schattenplastik und Farbenplastik_ (Vienna, 1898); _Geograph. Zeitschrift_ (1902 and 1908). [4] Professor Henrici, _Report on Planimeters_ (64th meeting of the British Association, Oxford, 1894); J. Tennant, "The Planimeter" (_Engineering_, xlv. 1903). [5] H. Wagner's _Lehrbuch_ (Hanover, 1908, pp. 241-252) refers to numerous authorities who deal fully with the whole question of measurement. [6] Kienzl of Leoben in 1891 had invented a similar apparatus which he called a Relief Pantograph (_Zeitschrift_, Vienna Geog. Soc. 1891). [7] M. Fiorini, _Erd- und Himmelsgloben, frei bearbeitet von S. Günther_ (Leipzig, 1895). [8] _Jahrb. des polytechn. Instituts in Wien_, vol. xv. [9] Compare the maps of EUROPE, ASIA, &c., in this work. [10] The great majority of the maps in this work are made by this process. [11] Lepsius, _Urkundenbuch_, Pl. XXII. [12] These Colchians certainly were not Egyptians. The maps referred to may have been Assyrian. [13] We are indebted to Strabo for nearly all we know about Greek cartographers anterior to Ptolemy, for none of their maps has been preserved. [14] The gnomon was known to the Chinese in the 5th century B.C., and reached the Greeks (Anaximander) through Babylon. Pytheas, as far as known, was the first to utilize it for the determination of a latitude.