4. Italy was the scene of severe pestilences in the years 1629–31; according to Ozanam they were borne there by German troops, and according to Häser by French troops. At all events the outbreak occurred in connexion with the war which France was waging in Mantua against Austria and Spain over the succession. According to a Venetian physician, Grossi, the specific disease was not bubonic plague; Häser,[49] however, assumes that both typhus fever and bubonic plague occurred. Lammert seems to think that camp-fever in Upper Italy had little to do with the high mortality. Ozanam mentions buboes, plague-sores, inflammation of the salivary glands, and black and violet petechiae. Death is said to have occurred in from one to seven days. Brescia was first attacked; after the battle of Villabona (May 26, 1629), the pestilence, conveyed by retreating Venetian troops, spread throughout Upper and Central Italy. In Verona the number of deaths was 32,895, in Milan 86,000, in Venice (1630) 45,489, (1631) 94,164, in Mantua 25,000. In the territory of the Venetian Republic 500,000 persons are said to have succumbed to various pestilential diseases. Genoa, Turin, Padua, Bologna, Lucca, Florence, Parma, and other cities were also attacked. Regarding the outbreak of pestilence in Milan, Ozanam gives us no further information.[50] In October and November isolated instances of disease occurred among people who had acquired articles from German soldiers. Strict measures of precaution (burning of all effects, and quarantining of all persons who had come in contact with infected people) prevented the pestilence from spreading. But during the Carnival these measures were carried out less vigorously, and the result was that in the latter part of March 1630 a pestilence broke out in various quarters of the city. Accordingly, two more lazarets and 800 straw huts were erected outside the city, and shelter for relatives of the sick was provided. Notwithstanding this, the pestilence spread to such an extent that some 3,500 persons died every day. In Florence, Grand Duke Ferdinand II adopted energetic measures against the dissemination of the disease; infected people, with or against their will, were taken to the Hospital of San Bonifacio, where the physicians themselves were obliged to remain. Recovered patients were held in quarantine, and their clothes and other effects were burned. Some 9,000 persons are said to have succumbed to the pestilence in Florence. 5. In England typhus fever repeatedly broke out after the year 1622. In the spring of the year 1643 it appeared in the parliamentary army and in the royal garrison during the siege of Reading. The disease, which is described by Thomas Willis, spread from there to Oxford and the surrounding country.[51] VI. A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE LOSS OF HUMAN LIFE IN GERMANY DURING THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR