Our final word about the place of the self in the moral life is, then, that the problem of morality is the formation, out of the body of original instinctive impulses which compose the natural self, of a voluntary self in which socialized desires and affections are dominant, and in which the last and controlling principle of deliberation is the love of the objects which will make this transformation possible. If we identify, as we must do, the interests of such a character with the virtues, we may say with Spinoza that happiness is not the reward of virtue, but is virtue itself. What, then, are the virtues? LITERATURE For asceticism, see Lecky, _History of European Morals_. For self-denial, Mackenzie, _International Journal of Ethics_, Vol. V., pp. 273-295. For egoism and altruism: Comte, _System of Positive Politics_, Introduction, ch. iii., and Part II., ch. ii.; Spencer, _Principles of Ethics_, Vol. I., Part I., chs. xi.-xiv.; Stephen, _Science of Ethics_, ch. vi.; Paulsen, _System of Ethics_, pp. 379-399; Sorley, _Recent Tendencies in Ethics_; Sidgwick, _Methods of Ethics_, pp. 494-507. For the doctrine of self-interest, see Mandeville, _Fable of Bees_; Sidgwick, _Methods of Ethics_, Book I., ch. vii., and Book II., ch. v.; Stephen, _Science of Ethics_, ch. x.; Martineau, _Types of Ethical Theory_, Part II., Book II., Branch I., ch. i.; Fite, _Introductory Study_, ch. ii. For historic development of sympathy, see Sutherland, _Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct_. For the doctrine of self-realization, see Aristotle, _Ethics_; Green, _Prolegomena to Ethics_; Seth, _Principles of Ethics_, Part I., ch. iii.; Bradley, _Ethical Studies_, Essay II.; Fite, _Introductory Study_, ch. xi.; Paulsen, _System of Ethics_, Book II., ch. i.; Taylor, _International Journal of Ethics_, Vol. VI., pp. 356-371; Palmer, _The Heart of Ethics_, and _The Nature of Goodness_; Calderwood, _Philosophical Review_, Vol. V., pp. 337-351; Dewey, _Philosophical Review_, Vol. II., pp. 652-664; Bryant, _Studies in Character_, pp. 97-117. For the ethics of success, besides the writings of Nietzsche, see Plato, _Gorgias_ and _Republic_, Book I., and Sumner, _Folkways_, ch. xx. For the social self: Cooley, _Human Nature and the Social Order_, chs. v. and vi.; for the antagonistic self, chs. vii.-ix. For a general discussion of the Moral Self, see Bosanquet, _Psychology of the Moral Self_; Ladd, _Philosophy of Conduct_, ch. ix. (see also ch. xviii. on the Good Man). FOOTNOTES: [170] Compare the opening words of Emerson's _Essay on Compensation_. [171] The principle of a "higher law" for the few who are leaders was first explicitly asserted in modern thought by Machiavelli.