The Madro-tertiary climax does not appear as a major flora until the Miocene, but probably originated earlier. According to Axelroad (_loc. cit._), this xerophytic flora evolved from elements of the Neotropical-tertiary geoflora that became adapted to arid conditions that developed in the rain shadow of the high mountains flanking the Central Plateau of México. Originally, the Madro-tertiary flora consisted of small trees, shrubs, and grasses. Although some elements of this flora moved northward in the late Miocene, the major part of it remained in México until the early Pliocene. In the western United States, mountain formation increased in intensity in the Pliocene and continued on into the early Pleistocene. As the mountains became more elevated, especially the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges, they blocked the prevailing winds from the Pacific Ocean and extensive aridity developed on their leeward side. As xeric conditions became widespread, the Madro-tertiary flora successfully occupied the drier regions of southern California, the Great Basin, and the western parts of the Great Plains. While the Entoptychinae probably evolved in response to the Arcto-tertiary flora, the late Tertiary geomyines probably evolved in response to the Madro-tertiary geoflora on the Central Plateau of México. Some of these early geomyines, especially ancestors of the modern lineages, probably were pushed southward by competition with the more specialized entoptychines. Most geomyines were pushed out of the northern area of distribution, except for _Dikkomys_ that survived in association with the entoptychids throughout the early and middle Miocene. During this time, and probably continuing on into the late Miocene, the geomyines occurring to the south in México became adapted to the arid environments of the Madro-tertiary geoflora. Of course, information is lacking about climates in several parts of the late Miocene and early Pliocene. When such information becomes available it conceivably could modify the hypothesis outlined immediately above.