=Special Courts of the United States.=--In addition to the three classes of United States courts, already described, several tribunals of a special or temporary character have been created to hear and determine particular classes of controversies. Some of these courts are held by judges who are appointed for definite terms. _The Court of Claims_ was created in 1855 to pass upon claims against the government. It consists of a chief justice and four associate justices who serve during good behavior. It is a well-established principle of public law that a sovereign state cannot be sued against its will. Before the creation of this court claims against the government had to be considered by Congress, a body which aside from being ill fitted for the hearing of such cases, was overburdened by the necessity of considering the large number of claims annually laid before it. The government now allows itself to be sued in this court on most claims of a contractual nature, but the judgments of the court cannot be paid until Congress appropriates the money for their payment, and hence the court cannot issue an execution to enforce its findings. At each session of Congress, an appropriation is made to satisfy any judgments made or which may be made by the court. Appeals are allowed to be taken from the court of claims to the Supreme Court on questions of law. Among the more important classes of claims that have been adjudicated by this court were the French Spoliation claims, and Indian depredation claims, both involving numerous claims and very large amounts in the aggregate. In 1906 a United States court was established in China to exercise jurisdiction in certain cases previously exercised by the consuls. It is held by a single judge appointed by the President for a term of four years. The tariff law of 1909 created a _United States Court of Customs Appeals_, consisting of a presiding judge and four associates, to hear appeals from the board of general appraisers in cases involving the construction of the law and facts respecting the classification of imported articles and the rate of duty imposed thereon. In 1910 a _Commerce Court_ was created, to decide appeals from the orders of the Interstate Commerce Commission; but in 1913 this court was abolished. In the _District of Columbia_ Congress has created two courts, with judges appointed to hold office during good behavior: the supreme court of the district, consisting of a chief justice and five associate justices; and the court of appeals, consisting of a chief justice and two associate justices. Appeals may be taken from the former to the latter, whose decisions in some cases are reversible by the Supreme Court of the United States. Appeals may also be taken from the decisions of the commissioner of patents to the court of appeals of the District of Columbia.