himself, in his Encyclical of May 16, 1891, states that, in civilized society, it is impossible that every one shall rise to the same level, and that, in consequence, there will always be rich and poor. "Just as, in the human body, the members, in spite of their diversity, adapt themselves so marvellously to each other as to form a perfectly proportioned whole, which may be called symmetrical, so, in society, the _two classes_ are destined by nature to unite in harmony, and to maintain together a perfect balance." Life and experience, however, would seem to prove the opposite. The only thing to be gained by these attempts to return to a time that has disappeared for ever is the combination of crafts--a necessity which seeks to-day, as it has always done, its legitimate satisfaction. But new methods of production and sale demand new forms of organization of sellers and producers, and have brought us to the system, evolved by those concerned, spontaneously, without prejudiced or preconceived theories, by the direct force of circumstances--the system of _Trade Unionism_, which has succeeded the guild system as the defender of trade interests. AUTHOR'S BIBLIOGRAPHY Arte dei medici, speziali e merciai. (State Archives of Florence.) Arte di Calimala. (Statutes, edition Filippi Giovanni, Torino, 1889. Gr. 8vo.) Arte di Por Santa Maria. Statutes, Archives of Florence, and for all the other _Arti_. ASHLEY (W. J.). Economic History. BODIN (JEAN). De la République. (Paris, 1576-1578. Folio.) BOISSONNADE (P.). Essai sur l'organisation du travail en Poitou, depuis le XI^e siècle jusqu'à la Révolution. (Paris, H. Champion, 1900. 2 vols. 8vo.) BONOLIS. Rivista italiana per le scienze giuridiche. (Vol. xxvii. fasc. i. and ii.) BOUGLE (G.). Essais sur le régime des castes. (Paris, F. Alcan, 1908. Travaux de l'année sociologique. 8vo.) BOURGEOIS (A.). Les Métiers de Blois. (2 vols. 1895.) BRISSON (PIERRE). Histoire du travail et des travailleurs. (Paris, Delagrave, no date. 16mo.) BUCHER (KARL). Études d'histoire et d'économie politique. (Paris, F. Alcan, 1901. 8vo.) CANTINI. Legislazione toscana. CUNNINGHAM (W.). Outlines of English Industrial History (with E. A. MacArthur). (Cambridge, 1895. 8vo.) DAVIDSOHN (ROBERT). 1. Geschichte von Florenz. 2. Forschungen zur Geschichte von Florenz. (Berlin, E. S. Mittler und Sohn, 1896-1908. 4 vols. 8vo.) DEJOB (CHARLES). Le Marchand de vin dans les vieilles communes de l'Italie. (Paris, Société Française d'Imprimerie et de Libraire, brochure. 8vo. 1907.) DOREN (ALFRED). 1. Entwicklung und Organisation der Florentiner Zünfte. (1897, Leipzig, in Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche Forschungen, by Schmoller.) 2. Studien aus der Florentiner Wirtschaftgeschichte. (Stuttgart, 1901. 8vo.).