independent position, both demanding that the Wolffian rationalism be supplemented by the empiricism of Locke, and the latter, moreover, in anticipation of the Critique of Reason, pointing very definitely to the distinction between content and form as the salient point in the theory of knowledge. [Footnote 1: Benno Erdmann, _M. Knutzen und seine Zeit_, 1876.] [Footnote 2: Th. W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_, 1848.] [Footnote 3: Lambert: _Cosmological Letters_, 1761; _New Organon_, 1764; _Groundwork of Architectonics_, 1771. Bernoulli edited some of Lambert's papers and his correspondence.] Among the opponents of the Wolffian philosophy, all of whom favor eclecticism, A. Rüdiger[1] and Chr. Aug. Crusius,[2] who was influenced by Rüdiger, and, like him, a professor at Leipsic, are the most important. Rüdiger divides philosophy according to its objects, "wisdom, justice, prudence," into three parts--the science of nature (which must avoid one-sided mechanical views, and employ ether, air, and spirit as principles of explanation); the science of duty (which, as metaphysics, treats of duties toward God, as natural law, of duties to our neighbor, and deduces both from the primary duty of obedience to the will of God); and the science of the good (in which Rüdiger follows the treatise of the Spaniard, Gracian, on practical wisdom). Crusius agrees with Rüdiger that mathematics is the science of the possible, and philosophy the science of the actual, and that the latter, instead of imitating to its own disadvantage the deductive-analytical method of geometry, must, with the aid of experience and with attention to the probability of its conclusions, rise to the highest principles synthetically. Besides its deduction the determinism of the Wolffian philosophy gave offense, for it was believed to endanger morals, justice, and religion. The will, the special fundamental power of the soul (consisting of the impulses to perfection, love, and knowledge), is far from being determined by ideas; it is rather they which depend on the will. The application of the principle of sufficient reason, which is wrongly held to admit of no exception, must be restricted in favor of freedom. For the rest, we may note concerning Crusius that he derives the principle of sufficient reason (everything which is now, and before was not, has a cause) and the principle of contingency from the principles of contradiction, inseparability, and incompatibility, and these latter from the principle of conceivability; that he rejects the ontological argument, and makes the ground of obligation in morality consist in obedience toward God, and its content in perfection. Among the other opponents of the Wolffian philosophy, we may mention the theologian Budde(us)[3] _(Institutiones Philosophiae Eclecticae_, 1705); Darjes (who taught in Jena and Frankfort-on-the-Oder; _The Way to Truth_, 1755); and Crousaz (1744).