Kaegi, _The Rigveda, the oldest literature of the Indians_, 1886. Barth, _The Religions of India_, in Truebner's Oriental Series. Herrmann Oldenberg, _Die Religion der Veda_, 1894. Bergaigne, _La Religion Vedique_, 3 vols., 1878-83. E. Hardy, _Die Vedisch Brahmanische Periode der Religion des alten Indiens_. Lehmann, in De la Saussaye. Rhys Davids, _Oxford Proceedings_, vol. i. p. 1, _sqq._ CHAPTER XIX INDIA II. _Brahmanism_ The period in which the songs were collected by the Aryans dwelling in the Punjaub was succeeded by a period of wars and troubles, after which the successful race is found to have spread further towards the East, and to have settled on the Ganges and its tributaries. Along with this change of position a great change has also taken place in the spirit of the people, a change which is strikingly seen in their religion. The priesthood has come to occupy the position of a separate class to an extent not formerly the case, and all the phenomena are apparent which are generally found associated with a hierocracy or rule of priests. The early religious writings have been formed into a sacred canon: there is an active production of new works which explain the old ones; the sacrifices grow more elaborate and new virtues are attributed to them; and along with this hardening and formalising of the outward parts of religion there is a religious speculation of great volume and of great freedom of character. The Caste System: The Brahmans.--The key to the whole movement is to be found in the new position of the priesthood, or in the establishment at this period of the system of caste. Though this system is only once mentioned in the Rigveda, and that in a hymn of late date, scholars find traces of it in the arrangement of the hymns, and as it is found in Persia, the Indians probably had it before they entered India. It may even, it is judged, be traceable to the division of ranks among the primitive Aryan families. Teutonic as well as Indian legends are found explaining how mankind were divided from the first into different classes.[1] But the primitive differences of rank must have had a great development before they took shape in the rigid caste system of India. This system appears to be organised with a view expressly to the exaltation of the priesthood, and must have been the result of a struggle between the priests and the warrior or ruling classes. The priests have made themselves indispensable in nearly all religious acts. Their very title shows this. While _Brahman_, as the name of a god, means primarily growth, and later, devotion or prayer, _brahmana_ (neut.) signifies the ritual texts according to which worship is performed, and _brahman_ (mas.) is the name of those who use such texts, and comes to stand for the highest caste of Indian society. Without the brahman there can be no satisfactory worship, because there can be no security that any rite is performed correctly; and a rite which is