It was not through either of the parties to that conflict that new troubles arose, but through the action of a class fast rising into importance--literary men. From the beginning to the middle of the last century these philosophers became more and more audacious in their attacks. Unlike the scientific, whose theological action was by implication rather than in a direct way, these boldly assaulted the intellectual basis of faith. The opportune occurrence of the American Revolution, by bringing forward in a prominent manner social evils and political methods for their cure, gave a practical application to the movement in Europe, and the Church was found unable to offer any kind of resistance. [Sidenote: Summary of the Italian system.] From these observations of the state of the Church at four different epochs of her career we are able to determine her movement. There is a time of abounding strength, a time of feebleness, a time of ruinous loss, a time of utter exhaustion. What a difference between the eleventh and the eighteenth centuries! It is the noontide and evening of a day of empire. CHAPTER V. APPROACH OF THE AGE OF REASON IN EUROPE. IT IS PRECEDED BY MARITIME DISCOVERY. _Consideration of the definite Epochs of Social Life._ _Experimental Philosophy emerging in the Age of Faith._ _The Age of Reason ushered in by Maritime Discovery and the rise of European Criticism._ MARITIME DISCOVERY.--_The three great Voyages._ COLUMBUS _discovers America_.--DE GAMA _doubles the Cape and reaches India_.--MAGELLAN _circumnavigates the Earth.--The Material andintellectual Results of each of these Voyages._ DIGRESSION ON THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF AMERICA.--_In isolated human Societies the process of Thought and of Civilization is always the same.--Man passes through a determinate succession of Ideas and embodies them in determinate Institutions.--The state of Mexico and Peru proves the influence of Law in the development of Man._ [Sidenote: Peculiarities of the Age of Reason.] I have arrived at the last division of my work, the period in national life answering to maturity in individual. The objects to be considered differ altogether from those which have hitherto occupied our attention. We have now to find human authority promoting intellectual advancement, and accepting as its maxim that the lot of man will be ameliorated, and his power and dignity increased, in proportion as he is able to comprehend the mechanism of the world, the action of natural laws, and to apply physical forces to his use.