Scotland was at this time agitated by factions. A king five years old, a queen regent, ambitious nobles, and an influential clergy, kept this bold nation in constant turmoil. It was, nevertheless, one day to hold a first place among those that received the Reformation. The three kingdoms of the North, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, were united under a common sceptre. These rude and warlike nations seemed to have little in common with the doctrine of love and peace. And yet, by their very energy, they were, perhaps, more disposed than the people of the South to receive the evangelical doctrine in its power. But, the descendants of warriors and pirates, they brought, it would seem, too warlike a character to the Protestant cause; at a later period, their sword defended it with heroism. Russia, retired at the extremity of Europe, had few relations with other states, and belonged, moreover, to the Greek communion. The Reformation effected in the Western exerted little or no influence on the Eastern Church. Poland seemed well prepared for a reform. The vicinity of the Christians of Bohemia and Moravia had disposed it to receive, while the vicinity of Germany must have rapidly communicated, the evangelical impulse. So early as 1500, the nobility of Poland Proper had demanded the cup for the laity, appealing to the usage of the primitive Church. The liberty enjoyed by its towns, and the independence of its nobles, made it a safe asylum for Christians persecuted in their own country, and the truth which they brought thither was received with joy by a great number of its inhabitants. In our days, however, it is one of the countries which has the smallest number of confessors. The flame of reformation, which had long gleamed in Bohemia, had been almost extinguished in blood. Nevertheless, precious remains which had escaped the carnage, still survived to see the day of which John Huss had a presentiment. Hungary had been torn by intestine wars under the government of princes without character and without experience, and who had at last yoked the fate of their people to Austria, by giving this powerful House a place among the heirs of the crown. Such was the state of Europe at the beginning of the sixteenth century, which was destined to produce so mighty a transformation in Christian society. CHAP. VI. Roman Theology--Remains of Life--Justification by Faith--Witnesses for the Truth--Claude--The Mystics--The Vaudois--Valdo--Wickliffe--Huss--Prediction--Protestantism before the Reformation--Arnoldi--Utenheim--Martin--New Witnesses in the Church--Thomas Conecte--The Cardinal of Crayn--Institoris--Savonarola--Justification by Faith--John Vitraire--John Laillier--John of Wessalia--John of Goch--John Wessel--Protestantism before the Reformation--The Bohemian Brethren--Prophecy of Proles--Prophecy of the Franciscan of Isenach--Third Preparative--Literature.