As Philip II of Spain in 1581 became ruler of Portugal, during the 60 years following, the expansion of Brazil to the west in territory which had been assigned to Spain was permitted, and such possession remained permanent. At other times conflicts occurred with the Spaniards at the south, but in 1777 peace was made with the boundaries as at present. In 1807, Prince João, fleeing from Napoleon, came with his court to Brazil. He soon opened the five chief ports to commerce, he encouraged science, education, literature, art, and the immigration of foreigners, thus inaugurating a development of permanent value. On his return to Europe in 1821, the Prince, in view of the revolts of the Spanish colonies, hinted to his son whom he left in charge the advisability of himself assuming the crown, if a disposition towards independence became manifest. Accordingly in 1822, the son was crowned Emperor of Brazil; but having alienated his supporters, in 1831 he abdicated in favor of his infant son, Pedro. In 1889, the old Emperor, Dom Pedro II, who for many years had ruled wisely and well, was expelled on 24 hours’ notice; after a brief interim a Republic was established in 1891. Extravagance, insurrections, and financial distress followed, but since 1900 the country has made rapid advancement in wealth and in varied lines of development. GOVERNMENT The government is a federalized republic with the usual branches, the States more loosely bound together than with us, or than in any other South American Republic. They may even fix export taxes, and levy stamp duties. The President, with a Vice President, is elected for four years and is ineligible for a succeeding term. He has a Cabinet of seven Ministers. Congress is composed of a Senate with 63 members and a Chamber of 212 Deputies. There are 20 States, a Federal District, and the Territory of Acre. The last is composed of three Prefectures, with capital cities where government is administered by Government appointees. The States have their own administrative bodies, some with one house of legislation, some with two; and with a Governor or President as chief executive, a slight confusion possibly arising at times where the latter term is employed. All male citizens over 21 may vote except illiterates, soldiers, beggars, and members of monastic orders subject to vows of obedience, a wise prescription. The list of States precedes, with the usual figures, as accurate as obtainable, the areas from the latest Government survey. The list begins at the northwest, goes down the coast, and follows with the interior.