§ 164. Of ruses there are so many kinds that it is impossible to enumerate[316] and classify them. But in order to illustrate acts carried out as ruses some instances may be given. It is hardly necessary to mention the laying of ambushes and traps, the masking of military operations such as marches or the erection of batteries and the like, the feigning of attacks or flights or withdrawals, the carrying out of a surprise, and other stratagems employed every day in war. But it is important to know that, when useful, feigned signals and bugle-calls may be ordered, the watchword of the enemy may be used, deceitful intelligence may be disseminated,[317] the signals and the bugle-calls of the enemy may be mimicked[318] to mislead his forces. And even such detestable acts[319] as bribery of enemy commanders and officials in high position, and secret seduction of enemy soldiers to desertion, and of enemy subjects to insurrection, are frequently committed, although many writers protest. As regards the use of the national flag, the military ensigns, and the uniforms of the enemy, theory and practice are unanimous in rejecting it during actual attack and defence, since the principle is considered inviolable that during actual fighting belligerent forces ought to be certain who is friend and who is foe. But many[320] publicists maintain that until the actual fighting begins belligerent forces may by way of stratagem make use of the national flag, military ensigns, and uniforms of the enemy. Article 23 (_f_) of the Hague Regulations does not prohibit any and every use of these symbols, but only their _improper_ use, thus leaving the question open,[321] what uses are proper and what are not. Those who have hitherto taught the admissibility of the use of these symbols outside actual fighting can correctly maintain that the quoted article 23 (_f_) does not prohibit it.[322] [Footnote 316: See _Land Warfare_, § 144, where a great number of legitimate ruses are enumerated.] [Footnote 317: See the examples quoted by Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2761.] [Footnote 318: See Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2760.] [Footnote 319: The point has been discussed above in § 162.] [Footnote 320: See, for instance, Hall, § 187; Bluntschli, § 565; Taylor, § 488; Calvo, IV. No. 2106; Pillet, p. 95; Longuet, § 54. But, on the other hand, the number of publicists who consider it illegal to make use of the enemy flag, ensigns, and uniforms, even before an actual attack, is daily becoming larger; see, for instance, Lueder in Holtzendorff, IV. p. 458; Mérignhac, p. 166; Pradier-Fodéré, VI. No. 2760; Bonfils, No. 1074; _Kriegsbrauch_, p. 24. As regards the use of the enemy flag on the part of men-of-war, see below, in § 211.] [Footnote 321: Some writers maintain that article 23 (_f_) of the Hague Regulations has settled the controversy, but they forget that this article speaks only of the _improper_ use of the enemy ensigns and uniform. See _Land Warfare_, § 152.]