[232] A saying attributed to a "Sorbonne professor" by M. de la Blanchère (_Revue Critique_, 1895, i. p. 176). Others have declaimed on the theme that the knowledge of history is mischievous and paralyses. See F. Nietzsche, _Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen_, II. _Nutzen und Nachtheil der Historie für das Leben_, Leipzig, 1874, 8vo. [233] History and the social sciences are mutually dependent on each other; they progress in parallel lines by a continual interchange of services. The social sciences furnish a knowledge of the present, required by history for the purpose of making representations of the facts and reasoning from documents. History gives the information about evolutions which is necessary in order to understand the present. [234] The same institution has been adopted in German-speaking countries under the name of _Leitfaden_ (guiding-thread), and in English-speaking countries under the name of _Text-book_. [235] We must make an exception of Michelet's _Précis de l'histoire moderne_, and do Duruy the justice to acknowledge that in his school-books, even in the first editions, he has endeavoured, often successfully, to make his narratives both interesting and instructive. [236] For a criticism of this method, see above, p. 265. [237] The most complete, and probably the most accurate, account of the state of the secondary teaching of history after the reforms has been given by a Spaniard, R. Altamira, _La Enseñanza de la historia_, 2nd edition, Madrid, 1895, 8vo. [238] We are here treating only of France. But, in order to dispel an illusion of the French public, we may remark that historical pedagogy is still less advanced in English-speaking countries, where the methods used are still mechanical, and even in German-speaking countries, where it is hampered by the conception of patriotic teaching. [239] I have endeavoured, in a course of lectures at the Sorbonne, to do a part of this work.--[Ch. S.] [240] Let it be noted, however, that to the question put to the candidates for the modern Baccalaureate in July 1897, "What purpose is served by the teaching of history?" eighty per cent. of the candidates answered, in effect, either because they believed it, or because they thought it would please, "To promote patriotism."--[C. V. L.] [241] This is what has been produced in Germany under the name of _Quellenbuch_. [242] The same pedagogic theory will be found in the preface to my _Histoire narrative et descriptive des anciens peuples de l'Orient_, Supplement for the use of professors, Paris, 1890, 8vo.--[Ch. S.] [243] I have treated this question in the _Revue universitaire_, 1896, vol. i.--[Ch. S.] [244] On the organisation of higher education in France at this epoch and on the first reforms, see the excellent work of M. L. Liard, _l'Enseignement supérieur en France_, Paris, 1888-94, 2 vols. 8vo. [245] E. Lavisse, _Questions d'enseignement national_, p. 12. [246] Cf. _supra_, p. 55.