In _Cladonia sylvatica_ and also in _Cl. rangiformis_ Lesdain has indicated ff. _abortiva_ Harm. as evidently the result of insect attack. In both cases the tips of the podetia are swollen, brown, bent and shrivelled. One of the most curious and constant effects, also worked out by Lesdain, occurs in _Physcia hispida_ (_Ph. stellaris_ var. _tenella_). In that lichen the gonidia at the tips of the fronds are scooped out and eaten by mites, so that the upper cortex becomes separated from the lower part of the thallus. As the hyphae of the cortex continue to develop, an arched hood is formed of a whitish shell-like appearance and powdery inside. Sometimes the mites penetrate at one point only, at other times the attack is at several places which may ultimately coalesce into one large cavity. In a crustaceous species, _Caloplaca_ (_Placodium_) _citrina_ he found constant evidence of the disturbing effect of the small creatures, which by their action caused the areolae of the thallus to grow into minute adherent squamules. A pathological variety, which he calls var. _sorediosa_, is distinguished by the presence of cup-like hollows which are scooped out by Acarinae and are filled by yellowish soredia. In another form, var. _maritima_, the margins of the areolae, occasionally the whole surface, become powdery with a citrine yellow efflorescence as a result of their nibbling. Zukal[979] adds to the deformations due to organic agents, the hypertrophies and abnormalities caused by climatic conditions. He finds such irregularities of structure more especially developed in countries with a very limited rainfall, as in certain districts of Chili, Australia and Africa, where changes in cortex and rhizoids and proliferations of the thallus testify to the disturbance of normal development. CHAPTER VII PHYLOGENY I. GENERAL STATEMENT A. ORIGIN OF LICHENS Though lichens are very old members of the vegetable kingdom, as symbiotic plants they yet date necessarily from a time subsequent to the evolution of their component symbionts. Phylogeny of lichens begins with symbiosis. The algae, which belong to those families of Chlorophyceae and Myxophyceae that live on dry land, had become aerial before their association with fungi to form lichens. They must have been as fully developed then as now, since it is possible to refer them to the genus or sometimes even to the species of free-living forms. The fungus hyphae have combined with a considerable number of different algae, so that, even as regards the algal symbiont, lichens are truly polyphyletic in origin.