whipping boys might have pressed rather hardly upon the youth of Oxford; but very few of them are mentioned in the University Register." The basis of the medieval curriculum in Arts is to be found in the Seven Liberal Arts of the Dark Ages, divided into the _Trivium_ (Grammar, Rhetoric and Dialectic) and the _Quadrivium_ (Music, Arithmetic, Geometry and Astronomy). The _Quadrivium_ was of comparatively little importance; Geometry and Music received small attention; and Arithmetic, and Astronomy were at first chiefly useful for finding the date of Easter; but the introduction of mathematical learning from Arabian sources in the thirteenth century greatly (p. 138) increased the scope of Geometry and Arithmetic, and added the study of Algebra. The Grammar taught in the universities assumed a knowledge of such a text-book as that of Alexander de Villa Dei, and consisted of an analysis of the systems of popular grammarians, based on the section _De barbarismo_ in the _Ars Grammatica_ of AElius Donatus, a fourth-century grammarian, whose work became universally used throughout Europe. Latin poets were read in the grammar schools, and served for grammatical and philological expositions in the universities, and the study of Rhetoric depended largely on the treatises of Cicero. The "Dialectic" of the _Trivium_ was the real interest of the medieval student among the ancient seven subjects, but the curriculum in Arts came to include also the three Philosophies, Physical, Moral, and Metaphysical. The arms of the University of Oxford consist of a book with seven clasps surrounded by three crowns, the clasps representing the seven Liberal Arts and the crowns the three Philosophies. The universities were schools of philosophy, mental and physical, and the attention of students in Arts was chiefly directed to the logic, metaphysics, physics, and ethics of Aristotle. Up to the twelfth century, Aristotle was known only through the translations into Latin of the sections of the _Organon_, (p. 139) entitled _De Interpretatione_ and _Categoriae_, and through the logical works of Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the range of medieval studies was greatly enlarged by the introduction of other works of Aristotle from translations partly from the Arabic and partly direct from the Greek. The conservatism of the University of Paris at first forbade the study of the new Aristotle, but it soon became universal in the medieval universities. In addition to the works of Aristotle, as they were known in the Middle Ages, medieval students read such books as Porphyry's _Isagoge_, or Introduction to Aristotle; the criticism of Aristotle's _Categories_, by Gilbert de la Porree, known as the _Sex Principia_; the _Summulae Logicales_, a semi-grammatical, semi-logical treatise by Petrus Hispanus (Pope John XXI.); the _Parva Logicalia_ of Marsilius of Inghen; the _Labyrinthus_ and _Grecismus_ of Eberhard; the Scriptural commentaries of Nicolaus