The talisman[448] has a long history. To know when it came into use one must go back to the time when the study of the stars and their influence, real or supposed, on mundane affairs began. Although it has been asserted[449] that Adam acquired a knowledge of astrology through inspiration, it is safe to hold that the Accadian[450] star-gazers, inhabitants of the hills of Elam, first gave shape to this, in great part, pseudo-philosophy of nature, which was widely believed in by many peoples, and still has numerous sincere adherents everywhere. Mr. Proctor ventures to declare that “the idea that the stars in their course rule the fate of men and nations”[451] is a predominant one of the race.[452] In Babylonia, Assyria, Phœnicia, Egypt, and elsewhere, it received much attention; indeed, it was part and parcel of the prevailing religions, most of the Oriental systems being largely astronomical in origin. And the Chaldean or, rather, Accadian astrologer’s work is obvious enough to this day;[453] it is seen in the division of time into the week of seven days, with the seventh one of rest, the Sabbath,[454] and the mode of regulation of religious times and seasons,[455] to say nothing of the signs of the zodiac, and so on. It is stated by Vitruvius[456] that astrology[457] was brought from the East to Greece[458] by the Chaldeans, of whom Berosus, the historian, “the first of them,” settled at Cos and opened a school there. However this may be, it is stated in Ptolemy’s remarkable book[459] that medical astrology originated in Egypt. Hippocrates, who lived a century or so before Berosus, had certainly a knowledge of astrology. Galen wrote a book on it, and, like Hippocrates, gives special prominence to the influence of the moon, dwelling particularly on its production of critical changes in diseases. Many another physician thought it necessary to master it,[460] including Chaucer’s “Doctor of Physick,” who was “grounded in astronomie.”[461] From the fact that astrology and religion were closely connected, it almost necessarily followed that medical talismans possessed more or less of a religious significance. Among the talismanic gems pictured in De Wilde’s book[462] is one which has on one side the Greek letters ΙΑΩ, signifying the Creator of the world, or Jehovah; and on the other a representation of an extremely _erotic_ and rather misshapen lion rampant. This, worn in a ring, was said to prevent renal and other diseases. De Wilde observes, in accordance with a belief of ancient date, that in this figure one has health symbolized. Says he: “_Leo erectus verum signum sanitatis protendit._”