In passing from Taine’s fatalistic view of history to note his views on progress we find him asserting that man’s nature does not in itself inspire great optimism, for that nature is largely animal, and man is ever ready, however “civilised” he may appear to be, to return to his native primitive ferocity and barbarism. Man is not, according to Taine, even a sane animal, for he is by nature mad and foolish. Health and wisdom only occasionally reign, and so we have no great ground for optimism when we examine closely the nature of man, as it really is. Taine’s treatment of the French Revolution[3] shows his hostility to democracy, and he is sceptical about the value or meaning of the watchwords, “Rights of Man,” or _Liberté_, _Egalité_, _Fraternité_. This last, he claims, is merely a verbal fiction useful for disguising the reality, which is actual warfare of all against all. [3] _“La Révolution,”_ in his large work, _Les Origines de la France contemporaine_. Yet in spite of these considerations Taine believes in a definitely guaranteed progress. Man’s lower nature does not inspire optimism, but his high power of reason does, and it is on this faith in reason that Taine confidently founds his assertions regarding progress. He sees in reason the ultimate end and meaning of all else. The triumph of reason is an ideal goal to which, in spite of so many obstacles, all the forces of the universe are striving. In this intellectual progress, this gradual rationalisation of mankind, Taine sees the essential element of progress upon which all other goods depend. The betterment of social conditions will naturally follow; it is the spiritual and mental factor which is the keynote of progress Reason, he contends, will give us a new ethic, a new politic and a new religion. Renan shares with Taine the belief in reason and its ultimate triumph. His views on progress are, however, more discursive, and are extremely interesting and suggestive. He was in his later years shrewd enough to discover the difficulties of his own doctrine. Thus although he believed in a “guaranteed” progress, Renan marks a stage midway between the idea of progress as held by Comte and Taine on the one hand, and by Cournot and Renouvier on the other.