Northern New Mexico was above sea level during late Mississippian time; in some areas caves developed in the porous limestones, and in other places the limestones were eroded to a residuum of chert and red clay. The land must have looked like the karst areas of Indiana, Kentucky, and Illinois today—with lost rivers flowing into sink holes, numerous caves, and many underground rivers. Only the southernmost part of the state was awash in the late Mississippian seas, and in these salt waters, rocks of the Helms and Paradise formations settled. They are typical nearshore beds of yellowish limy sandstone, green limy shales, and brown sandy oolitic limestones. Plant fossils occur intermingled with marine animal remains; the plant fragments were washed into the shallow seas from the land areas of the central and northern parts of the state. The Pennsylvanian Period (280 to 310 m.y. ago) was a time of change. Previously, northern New Mexico had been an emergent lowland or barely awash in shallow waters, while to the south shallow but extensive seas held sway, the spawning ground of the vertebrates and invertebrates that evolved between 310 and 600 m.y. B.C. But mountains were built during the Pennsylvanian, and the whole pattern of land and sea was altered. The sun rose on north-south aligned ranges interspersed with north-south-trending seas (fig. 7). Somewhere north of Albuquerque a mighty range of mountains, the Uncompahgre Range, arose to shed rock debris into adjoining ocean basins. To the southeast, a lower but prominent range, the Pedernal Mountains, stretched from the present-day Pedernal Hills southward to somewhere near Ruidoso and Piñon. Rocks eroded from this landmass were dumped westward into the Orogrande basin which occupied the region near the present-day White Sands; there as much as 3000 feet of beds accumulated—impure sandstones, dark shales, fragmental limestones, and even some gypsum during the end phase of Pennsylvanian sedimentation. Rocks filled the Delaware basin in southeastern New Mexico—limestones, sandstones, and black shales that now produce oil and gas. In northwestern New Mexico west of Grants and mostly west of the Zuni Mountains, a low land area, the Zuni Islands, was the source of eroded residuum released into an ocean channelway that ran north-northwest through central New Mexico from El Paso to Farmington. And in the northeast, granite hills of the Sierra Grande Arch stood above the shallow Pennsylvanian seas. In the Four Corners region, broken rock from the Uncompahgre Range was rushed westward into the Pennsylvanian-age Paradox Basin. Amid the clastic limestones, black shale, gypsum, and salt of this basin are oil-bearing lenses. Today, oil wells pump this black “gold” from the ancient rocks—wells almost in the shadow of Shiprock’s famous spire.