rule of the Romans reached beyond Fezzan; they might easily have come as far as the negro countries. Those negro states on the rivers in the interior of Africa, may at different times have acknowledged Rome’s supremacy,—at least by embassies and tributes: we know of a caravan-road to Fezzan and Cydamus; the Garamantes are the inhabitants of Garama in Fezzan; (here there is a mistake in d’Anville’s map;) a short time ago, Roman ruins and inscriptions were found there by Ouseley. Once, the Romans had made an expedition against the Blemmyans in Dongola with success; another, under Ælius Gallus, against Yemen on the Arabian coast, was an utter failure. The number of Roman citizens had very much increased in the western provinces, from which also the legions were principally recruited. There were in fact forty-seven legions, and a corresponding number of cohorts under arms. In Italy, there were only levies in cases of emergency; and, on the other hand, the army became more and more made up of the _auxilia_ and cohorts. Far more than nine-tenths of it were certainly new citizens. The franchise, however, was now of little worth; nor was it even always attended with exemption from taxes. As a civil law-giver, Augustus aimed at a different object from what Cæsar did, who had wished to bring within bounds the wide range of the Roman laws and to have them worked up into one grand whole; just as Peel wants to do with the common law of England. This undertaking was very praiseworthy, however perilous and thankless a task it may be to make new codes of laws; but it is quite a different thing to bring the existing laws into harmony with each other. Augustus’ legislation, on the other, hand, was a new and arbitrary one. The _Lex Ælia Sentia_ is to be commended: in other enactments, he was wishing to struggle against the stream of custom and the monstrous immorality of the age. An aversion had sprung up against lawful wedlock, and the citizens lived in concubinage with their female slaves, whose children likewise became slaves, and mostly remained so; or at best, became freedmen: thus the free population had very considerably dwindled. One may say, that in the guilds of the different crafts, nineteen out of twenty were freedmen; this is shown by the names on the _alba_ found at Pompeii. Augustus was quite right in setting his face against such a state of things; but the way in which he did it in the _Lex Julia_ and the _Lex Pupia Poppæa_, was by most wretched make-shifts which only betrayed how helplessly he was striving against the stream: their definitions of honour, of the _jus trium liberorum_, and such like were of no use.[39] TIBERIUS.