Shortly after began the war of Constantine with Maxentius, so memorable for its important consequences in history, and not less memorable for the triumphal arch of Constantine and Raphael’s painting of the battle. Maxentius ruled Italy as a tyrant, and the oppression of the people had increased. Italy had hitherto been free from the land-tax, having only indirect taxes and a legacy duty to pay; but Maxentius, to whom this, and the revenues raised from Africa, did not yet appear sufficient, proceeded to lay a land and an income tax on Italy. Then was Constantine called upon for help.—In the meanwhile also, Galerius had died, and the European part of his empire had been taken by Licinius, and the Asiatic by Maximin.—Constantine, at the head of a greatly superior force, crossed Mount Cenis; defeated the troops of Maxentius near Turin; marched against Verona, a very strong fortress; besieged it and beat an army which came to its relief; took it, and advanced by the Via Flaminia towards Rome. Maxentius met him three Italian miles from the Porta Collina, near Ponte Mollo. But his whole army was routed and himself killed; and Constantine, amid the general exultation, took possession of Rome. Soon afterwards, a war broke out in the East between Maximin and Licinius, Their forces encountered near the Thracian Heraclea, when Licinius conquered with a considerably weaker army: Maximin surrendered at discretion in Tarsus, and was condemned to die. There were now but two emperors left, Constantine in the west, Licinius in the east. Between these two, before long, the first war arose, A. D. 314, in which Constantine gained the victory at the battles of Cibalis and Mardia, and Licinius sought and obtained peace on condition of giving up Illyricum, Macedon, and Greece; so that he had only left to him the Asiatic countries, Egypt, and Thrace, such a large and rich dominion, that no state of modern Europe is to be compared to it. After nine years (323), a new war broke out, although Licinius was married to Constantia a half-sister of Constantine, and had children by her. For this struggle, Licinius had equipped a fleet, as had also Constantine: it was the first war since the battle of Actium, in which the Roman Emperors brought fleets into action. Constantine gained a victory near Adrianople; and Crispus, his son by Minervina, who commanded the fleet, decided the war by the battle of Scutari, and forced the Hellespont. Near Chrysopolis, he crossed over to Asia, and again beat the enemy’s reserves: on this, Licinius fled to Cilicia. Here he capitulated. Constantine at first promised him his life; but he did not keep his word: nay, after some time, he even had Licinius, the son of his own sister, a guiltless and most hopeful boy, likewise put to death. Here Constantine first showed signs of cruelty, from which he had hitherto kept himself quite free.