6. =Oesophagus.= Contents, size (dilatation, stenosis, diverticula), color and character of mucosa (normally smooth, transparent, pale, grayish-white, often hypostatic on posterior surface), inflammation, swelling of mucosa, leukoplakia, œdema, erosions, ulcers, action of corrosive poisons, perforation, foreign bodies, varices (cirrhosis, splenic anæmia), hemorrhage, aneurismal erosion, infective granulomata (tuberculosis, syphilis and actinomycosis are all rare), neoplasms (benign are rare, sarcoma rare; carcinoma most common usually at the lower or middle third), parasites (thrush the most important infection). Postmortem softening of the œsophagus from the regurgitation of stomach-contents must not be mistaken for pathologic conditions. Oesophagomalacia is of the rarest occurrence during life. 7, 8. =Larynx and Trachea.= Nature of contents, character and position of _epiglottis_ and _plicæ aryepiglotticæ_ (the latter should be thin; greatly thickened in inflammation and œdema), mucosa (normally gray-red and smooth); _vocal cords_ (position and relations as viewed from above; should be thin and tendon-like; mucosa thickened in inflammation and œdema; may be atrophic), œdema, inflammation, diphtheritic membranes, ulcers, syphilis, tuberculosis, leprosy, glanders, actinomycosis, rhinoscleroma, neoplasm, foreign-bodies, etc. An extreme œdema of the glottis may disappear after death, and its occurrence be shown only by the wrinkled appearance of the mucous membrane. Anomalies are rare, the most common being a laryngocele. In typhoid fever erosions and ulcers are not rare in the larynx. In small-pox ulcers, diphtheritic inflammations and hemorrhages may occur. The most common tumor is the fibroma or fibro-epithelioma (papilloma), occurring particularly in children and singers (“children’s nodule,” “singer’s nodule”). Angioma, myoma, lipoma and chondroma are rare. Thyroid adenoma, the so-called “amyloid-tumor” and adenoma of the mucous glands are rare. Sarcoma is also rare. Lymphosarcoma and leukæmic infiltrations are not common. Primary carcinoma is more frequent than sarcoma, but is relatively rare. It occurs most frequently in men, arising on the true vocal cords, and is squamous-celled. In trichinosis the laryngeal muscles usually show an early and abundant invasion. The most important pathologic conditions of the trachea are anomalies (diverticula, fistula, tracheocele), inflammation (catarrhal, membranous, pseudomembranous), tuberculosis, syphilis, secondary erosions, ulcers and perforations (tumors of thyroid, cancer of œsophagus, tuberculosis and suppurating lymphnodes, aneurisms), stenosis, compression from enlarged thyroid, thymus or lymphnodes, dilatation, tracheotomy, intubation, and neoplasms (relatively rare). The cartilages of both trachea and larynx should be examined for inflammation, pigmentation, etc.