Principles of literary criticismRichards, I. A. (Ivor Armstrong)
Philosophy
Principles of literary criticism
Richards, I. A. (Ivor Armstrong)
Criticism
The correspondence is not by any means simple. Many things are included
under knowing, for example, which on this reconstruction of psychology
would have to be counted as willing.[39] Expectation, usually described
as a cognitive attitude, becomes a peculiar form of action, getting
ready, namely, to receive certain kinds of stimuli rather than others.
The opposite case is equally common. Hunger, a typical desire on
the usual account, would become knowledge, giving us, when genuine
hunger, obscure awareness of a lack of nourishment, when habit-hunger,
awareness of a certain phase in a cyclic visceral process. These
illustrations bring out clearly what is everywhere recognised, that the
customary cognition-feeling-conation classification of mental goings on
is not a pigeon-holing of exclusive processes. Every mental event has,
in varying degrees, all three characteristics. Thus expectation as a
preparation for certain stimuli may lower the threshold for them, and
sometimes makes their reception more and sometimes less discriminating;
hunger also is characteristically accompanied by a search for food.
The advantage of substituting the causation, the character and
the consequences of a mental event as its fundamental aspects
in place of its knowing, feeling, and willing aspects is that
instead of a trio of incomprehensible ultimates we have a set
of aspects which not only mental events but all events share.
We have, of course, to introduce qualifications. Stimuli, as
we have mentioned above, are not the only causes of mental events.
The nervous system is specialised to receive impressions through
the organs of sense, but its state at any moment is also determined
by a host of other factors. The condition of the blood and the
position of the head are typical instances. Only that part of
the cause of a mental event which takes effect through incoming
(sensory) impulses or through effects of past sensory impulses
can be said to be thereby known. The reservation no doubt involves
complications. But any plausible account of what knowledge is
and how it happens is bound to be complicated.
Similarly, not all the effects of a mental event are to be counted
as what that event wills or seeks after; apoplectic strokes,
for example, can be ruled out. Only those movements which the
nervous system is specialised to incite, which take place through
motor impulses, should be included.
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