Few material changes had been introduced beyond the Scots water, in either church or state, when the youngest and greatest of Malcolm Ceanmore’s sons succeeded his brother upon the throne. Malcolm was a Gaelic king to the last, and the reforming energy of Margaret was directed to the court and clergy; she scarcely aimed at effecting any radical change in the principles of government. During the reigns of Duncan and of Donald, Scotland must, if anything, have retrograded rather than advanced, remaining stationary apparently whilst Edgar was king--to judge from the little that is known of that period--the disorganized condition of the see of St. Andrews, which was vacant during the whole of these three reigns, typifying probably the general state of the kingdom at large. Sufficient occupation was afforded Alexander by his contest with the church, which was scarcely brought to a close with his life, and by his northern wars; and though, from the presence of some of the great feudal officers of the crown, and of _Vicecomites_, on certain state occasions during his reign, it may be gathered that his policy was identical with that of his successor, David may be safely regarded as the first king who practically introduced into Scotland the novel system of government in church and state, which was hardly thoroughly established before the opening of the thirteenth century. Many of the institutions and principles which had grown into use, more or less, upon the Continent through the gradual substitution of Roman law for the earlier Teutonic custom, and which had been adopted by successive sovereigns of Alfred’s race in the reconstruction of the Anglo-Saxon monarchy, were now substituted in a similar manner for the earlier laws and customs of Scotland; some of these changes being carried out at once, whilst in other cases a considerable time elapsed, after the first introduction of the principle, before it was thoroughly in operation throughout the country.