─────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────── Good hard pan or hard │10 tons for 4 cities, 6 tons for 2 cities, 8 shale │ tons for 1 city ─────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────── Good hard pan or hard │8 tons for 1 city, 10 to 15 tons for 1 city, shale unexposed to air,│ 12 to 18 tons for 1 city frost or water │ ─────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────── Very hard native bed rock│20 tons for 5 cities, 15 tons for 1 city, 10 │ tons for 1 city, 25 to 50 tons for 1 city ─────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────── Rock under caisson │24 tons for Baltimore, 25 tons for Cleveland ─────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────────── On soft foundations such as swamps or for outfalls on the muck bottom of rivers the sewer may be carried on a platform. For small sewers 2–inch planks, 2 to 4 feet longer than the diameter of the pipe are laid across the trench, and the sewer rests directly upon them. For large sewers imposing a heavy concentrated load, a pile foundation should be constructed. The foundation may consist of piles alone, pile bents, or a wooden platform supported on pile bents. The load which can be carried by a pile is determined with accuracy only by driving a test pile and placing a load on it. Where piles do not penetrate to a firm stratum the load they will support can be determined by any one of the various formulas, either theoretical or empirical, which have been devised. Probably the best known of these formulas are the so-called Engineering News formulas one of which is: _P_ = 2_Wh_⁄(_S_ + 1) for a pile driven by a drop hammer, in which _P_ = the safe load on the pile in pounds. The factor of safety is 6; _W_ = the weight of the hammer in pounds; _h_ = the fall of the hammer in feet; _S_ = the penetration of the pile in inches at the last driving blow. The blow is assumed to be driven on sound wood without rebound of the hammer. Reference should be made to engineering handbooks for other forms of pile formulas. The accuracy of all of these formulas is not of a high degree. The piles are driven at about 2 to 4 feet centers, to a depth of from 8 to 20 feet, unless hard bottom is struck at a lesser depth. The butt diameter of the piles used for the smallest sewers is about 6 to 8 inches. If bents are used, 2 or 3 piles are driven in a row across the line of the sewer and are capped with a timber. For brick, block, pipe, and some concrete sewers, a wooden platform must be constructed between the pile bents for the support of the sewer.