The degree to which abstraction is employed in the activities of a group depends on the complexity of the activities and on the complexity of consciousness in the group. When science, philosophy, and logic, and systems of reckoning time, space, and number are taught in the schools; when the attention is not so much engaged in perceptual as in deliberate acts; and when thought is a profession, then abstract modes of thought are forced on the mind. This does not argue absence of the power of abstraction in the lower races, or even a low grade of ability, but lack of practice. To one skilled in any line an unpracticed person seems very stupid; and this is apparently the reason why travelers report that the black and yellow races have feeble powers of abstraction. It is generally admitted, however, that the use of speech involves the power of abstraction, so that all races have the power in some degree. When we come further to examine the degree in which they possess it, we find that they compare favorably with ourselves in any test which involves a fair comparison. The proverb is a form of abstraction practiced by all races, and is perhaps the best test of the natural bent of the mind in this direction, because, like ballad poetry, and slang, proverbial sayings do not originate with the educated class, but are of popular origin. At the same time, proverbs compare favorably with the _mots_ of literature, and many proverbs have, in fact, drifted into literature and become connected with the names of great writers. Indeed, the saying that there is nothing new under the sun applies with such force and fidelity to literature that, if we should strip Hesiod and Homer and Chaucer of such phrases as "The half is greater than the whole," "It is a wise son that knows his own father" (which Shakespeare quotes the other end about), and "To make a virtue of necessity," and if we should further eliminate from literature the motives and sentiments also in ballad poetry and in popular thought, little would remain but form. If we assume, then, that the popular mind--let us say the peasant mind--in the white race is as capable of abstraction as the mind of the higher classes, but not so specialized in this direction--and no one can doubt this in view of the academic record of country-bred boys--the following comparison of our proverbs with those of the Africans of the Guinea coast (the latter reported by the late Sir A.B. Ellis[259]) is significant: _African._ Stone in the water-hole does not feel the cold. _English._ Habit is second nature. _A._ One tree does not make a forest. _E._ One swallow does not make a summer. _A._ "I nearly killed the bird." No one can eat nearly in a stew. _E._ First catch your hare. _A._ Full-belly child says to hungry-belly child, "Keep good cheer." _E._ We can all endure the misfortunes of others. _A._ Distant firewood is good firewood. _E._ Distance lends enchantment to the view.