The modern or human period of geology, that in which man and his contemporaries are certainly known to have inhabited the earth, was immediately preceded by an age of climatal refrigeration known as the Glacial or Ice age. This was further characterized not only by a prevalence of cold, unexampled so far as known either before or since, but by immense changes of the relative levels of sea and land, amounting, in some cases, at least, to several thousands of feet. The occurrence of these changes is clearly proved by the undoubted traces of the action of ice, whether land ice or floating ice, on all parts of our continents, half way to the equator, and by the occurrence of sea terraces and modern marine shells at high levels on mountains and table-lands. Perhaps we scarcely realize as we should the stupendous character of the changes involved in the driftage of heavy ice over our continents as far south as the latitude of 40°, in the deposit of boulders on hills several thousands of feet in height, and in the occurrence of shells of species still living in the sea, in beds raised to more than twelve hundred feet above its present level. Yet such changes must have occurred in the latest geological period immediately preceding that in which we live. Proceeding farther back in geological time, we find the still more extraordinary fact that in the middle and earlier Tertiary the northern hemisphere enjoyed a climate so much more mild than that which now prevails, that plants at present confined to temperate latitudes could flourish in Greenland and Spitzbergen.[183] The age in which we live is thus one of mediocrity, attaining neither to the Arctic rigour of the later Pleistocene, nor to the universal mildness of the preceding Miocene. [183] As I have elsewhere shown, a warm climate in an Arctic region seems to have afforded the necessary conditions for the great colonizing floras of all geological periods. The causes of these changes of climate we have discussed elsewhere. It remains for us now to consider the actual condition of our present continents, and the bearing of past conditions on the distribution of their living inhabitants.