“When discipline is still further reduced, the efforts of the men to keep under cover may lead them to duck even their heads and to fire their rifles at high angles. In this case the decisive short ranges would not be swept by fire, making it possible for the more determined of the two opponents to advance to the assault. “This reduction of the efficacy of fire (_i.e._, the delivery of fire at high angles) may also take place when troops are surprised and, in consequence thereof, fire hurriedly. This explains why the enemy’s fire passes entirely over a body of troops which has gotten quite close to his position--by no means an unusual phenomenon in surprises.”[165] [165] F. C. v. II. _Zum Studium der Taktik_, p. 97. Wolozkoi assumes that the core of hits of his constant cone is formed by projectiles fired at a mean angle of departure of less than 4 degrees, while the lower trajectories of the whole cone of fire correspond to an angle of 1 degree and 30 minutes, and the upper trajectories to one of 14 degrees and 30 minutes. If we apply these figures to a particular rifle we obtain a beaten zone containing 50% of the hits (central zone) at 560-1500 m. for the _Chassepot_ rifle; at 1000-2000 m. for the 8 mm. rifle, and at 1200-3000 m. for the 6.5 mm. rifle. It should once more be emphasized that these figures are applicable in combat phases in which the men themselves are under fire, while firing, or deliver their fire hurriedly or with bad aim. During the =Franco-German war= the German troops learned by experience that the defender’s fire inflicted serious losses on the attacker at long ranges, but that the efficacy of his fire did not increase as the skirmishers came closer to his position; that, on the contrary, the intensity of the hostile fire effect fell off noticeably at ranges below 600 m. During the attack made by the Prussian Guard against =St. Privat=, the greatest number of dead and wounded were counted at ranges from 1200-1500 m., and the fewest losses were sustained at ranges from 500-600 m. from the enemy’s position, where it had to remain stationary on the slope for about an hour awaiting the effect of the enveloping movement made by the Saxon Army Corps. A range of 1500 m. corresponds approximately to an angle of departure of 5 degrees for the _Chassepot_ rifle. The 20th Infantry Division was molested by rifle fire from =St. Privat=, during its march from =St. Ail= to =St. Privat= (the range in this case was 2200 m., which corresponds to an angle of departure of 15 degrees 30 minutes for the _Chassepot_ rifle) although the skirmishers of the Guard, against whom this fire was directed, were only from 400 to 500 m. from the French position. In the =Russo-Turkish war= of 1877-78, the same thing occurred. Infantry projectiles reached the Russian reserves while they were still 2500 m. from the enemy (this range corresponds to an angle of departure of 14 degrees 30 minutes).