=Implements.=—An illustration is given showing the method of using the three important agricultural implements employed by the Haussa cultivator (Fig. 27). The first of these is locally termed “Fatainya,” and is a curved-handled hoe with a blade of variable width. It is used for all operations of cultivation with the exception of turning up broad ridges and drilling. The implement shown in the centre is termed “Garma,” and is a broad, spade-like hoe, composed of an iron W-shaped frame, with several strips of iron riveted on the face, filling the interval between the arms. In the Zaria Province the iron strips are generally omitted, and the implement is called “Owya.” It is used for throwing up large spadefuls of soil in the preparation of the broad ridges which are made for nearly all kinds of crops. The last implement is the “Sangumi,” which is a thin rod with a small blade placed near one end and at right angles to it; its use is entirely for making drills for sowing seed. All the fields for growing ordinary food crops, with the exception of cassava, rice, and sugar-cane, are prepared in ridge formation; the latter appearing to average about 8 in. high from the original surface. The furrows from which the loose soil has been removed increase the apparent height by the extent of their depth, and give the appearance of a good form of tillage having been practised. This is, however, seldom the case, as, except where irrigated crops are being treated, the ground is left untilled beneath the thrown-up soil. To compensate for the shallow state of the cultivation, manure is applied in large quantity, all animal refuse and ashes being carefully preserved, and often conveyed for long distances to the fields by men or donkeys. The above conditions apparently apply only to the Haussa race, the pagan Gwaris and Bassas resorting to a much deeper form of cultivation and employing no manure. The Nupes and Yorubas do not know the use of manure for any crops except onions and tobacco, for both of which wood ashes are the chief substance applied.